Chapter 4: lexicon (a-f)

a  ‘ah’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

a tut  ‘to grow’ | Bahasa Indonesia: tumbuh | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), Kampung Wai U | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

a-  First person singular agreement marker | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

abu  ‘dust’ | collected on: Mangon | source: numerous | 2010 | note: loan from Bahasa Indonesia.

abu tuka  ‘bush’ | collected on: Mangon | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: this entry is present in the Holle list, but I was unable to independently verify it. I suspect it results from a misunderstanding, as tuka is the Mangon term for lal ‘inside’, and I cannot guess what abu could mean for that to be logical. I suspect the interviewer pointed at a bush, and the informant understood the question to be the location of the bush rather than the general word for ‘bush’.

adat  ‘ritual’/’custom’/’ceremony’ | Bahasa Indonesia: upacara, adat | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010 | note: loan from Bahasa Indonesia.

aduk  ‘to arrive’ | collected on: Mangon | source: verified from Holle list by two or more speakers unless otherwise noted | c. 1900 | note: this entry is a common error from the Holle lists. Rather than ‘to arrive’, the informant responded ‘I arrive’. It is common in Sula to frame responses this way rather than provide root forms of words. In this case, duk is the base form for ‘come’ and ‘arrive’. Interestingly, the Holle list collected aduk on Mangon, where a final vowel would be expected. Since aduki was also gathered in Mangon, I suspect an informant either provided an additional form based on knowledge of other dialects, or the informant was a Sanana transplant.

aduki  ‘to arrive’ | collected on: Mangon | source: numerous | 2010-2019 | note: as above, this form glosses as ‘I come’, and it is the expected form of the word for Mangon.

af(u)mai  ‘ash’ | Bahasa Indonesia: abu | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon tribe | 2014.

afan  ‘to work’ | collected on: Sanana | source: two to three consultants | 2010-2019 | note: verified from Holle as an archaic synonym of baumunara.

afmai  ‘ashes’ | collected on: Mangon | source: numerous | 2010-2019.

aftuka  ‘ash’/’inner fire’ | Bahasa Indonesia: abu | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

afumai  ‘ash’ | collected on: Mangon | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

Agustus  ‘August’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

ahad  ‘week’ | Bahasa Indonesia: minggu | collected on: Sanana | source: Duwila; Fagudu Tribe, Waibao village | 2010–2019 | note: loan from Bahasa Indonesia.

ahad mua  ‘weekend’ | Bahasa Indonesia: akhir minggu | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: ahad is a loan from Bahasa Indonesia.

ahat  ‘week’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

ahat banai/ ahat pihu  ‘the week after next’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

ahat dawika  ‘next week’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

ahat gatel (‘week three’)  ‘three weeks from now’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

ahat’ik  ‘this week’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

aheka moya  ‘to refuse’ | Bahasa Indonesia: menolak [tolak] | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

aji mat  ‘talisman’ | collected on: Sanana | source: verified from Holle list by two or more speakers unless otherwise noted | c. 1900 | note: the term was understood but said to be archaic.

ak  first person singular pronoun | Bahasa Indonesia: saya | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), Kampung Ulfoa, Kampung Wai U | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

ak fa  ‘my things’ | collected on: Mangon | source: verified from Holle list by two or more speakers unless otherwise noted | c. 1900.

ak gahia ak  ‘I myself’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: This Holle list item is likely the result of a miscommunication. The phrase translates as ‘I alone I’. Although semantically similar, it is not grammatically reflexive. The reflexive form is ak dit ‘I myself’.

ak ngausu mon  ‘I love you’ | Bahasa Indonesia: Aku cinta kamu | collected on: Sanana, Malbufa village | source: numerous | 2019 | note: it is more common to proclaim strong ‘like’ than ‘love’.

akaaka  ‘feel (touch)’ | Bahasa Indonesia: merasa [rasa] | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

akafoi  ‘drnking bowl’ | collected on: Sanana | source: verified from Holle list by two or more speakers unless otherwise noted | c. 1900 | note: archaic.

aku  first person singular pronoun | (no formality distinction) | Bahasa Indonesia: saya | collected on: Mangon | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon tribe | 2014.

aku / ak  ‘I’ | (1st person singular pronoun) | Bahasa Indonesia: saya | collected on: Mangon, Sanana | source: numerous | 2010-2019 | note: a- is the corresponding agreement marker.

aku nungga aku  ‘I myself’ | collected on: Mangon | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: I was unable to verify this Holle list form, It could be dialect.

alam  ‘universe’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: I received this form as ‘the world’. It is likely a loan from Bahasa Indonesia meaning ‘nature’, ‘realm’, ‘world’.

alasan  ‘reason, for’ | Bahasa Indonesia: alasan, untuk (Loan) | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

almanak  ‘calendar’ | Bahasa Indonesia: kalendar | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: loan from Spanish-Arabic al-manakh (OED) by way of Dutch and Bahasa Indonesia.

am  ‘to squeeze’ | Bahasa Indonesia: memeras | collected on: all Sanana regions | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. Also targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation Fagudu, Falahu, Facei tribes | 2015.

am / ami  ‘to squeeze’/’pinch’ | Bahasa Indonesia: memeras | collected on: Sanana, Mangon | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: this form is abbreviation of gami / gam ‘squeeze’.

amande  ‘almond’ | Bahasa Indonesia: amandel (Loan) | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

amehinana  ‘child’ | Bahasa Indonesia: anak | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), Kampung Capuli | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

ami  ‘to squeeze’ | Bahasa Indonesia: memeras | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), Kampung Wai U, Kampung Capuli | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

an  ‘who?’ | Bahasa Indonesia: siapa | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon tribe | 2014.

an samali, an samoli  ‘last (temporal)’ | collected on: Mangon | source: single consultant | 2014 | note: Holle lists both forms, and they do both exist as alternate pronunciations, but I’m not convinced it is dialectic. I have heard the same speakers alternate between a and o in several words, and while it could be an ēther/either situation, I suspect there might be an elusive phonological process at work.

ana (1)  ‘child’/’youngest child’ | Bahasa Indonesia: anak | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2014.

ana (2)  ‘who?’ | Bahasa Indonesia: siapa | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon tribe | 2014.

ana fina  ‘daughter’/’girl’ (preteen and up) | Bahasa Indonesia: anak perempuan / cewek | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: ‘child’ + ‘female’.

ana fina me ihi  ‘girl’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: I was completely unable to verify this Holle list form. ana fina is indeed ‘girl’ but it is unclear what me ihi means. ihi alone means ‘flesh’/’meat’.

ana fina nana  ‘girl’ | collected on: Mangon | source: numerous | 2010-2019.

ana fini  ‘daughter’ | collected on: Mangon | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: all of my contacts produced fina regardless of location.

ana koha  ‘child’/’youngest child’ | collected on: Sanana | source: verified from Holle list by two or more speakers unless otherwise noted | c. 1900 | note: koha/koa also indicates virginity.

ana ma’ana  ‘son’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: I can easily imagine this Holle list form used to indicate one’s son, but at its most basic, it simply means ‘a man’.

ana ma’ana me’ihi  ‘boy’ | collected on: Sanana | source: verified from Holle list by two or more speakers unless otherwise noted | c. 1900 | note: this form is understandable and said to be perfectly acceptable, but my consultants consistently produced ana mehi maana (disregard presence of glottal stops).

ana ma’uwa  ‘stepdaughter’ | collected on: Mangon | source: verified from Holle list by two or more speakers unless otherwise noted | c. 1900.

ana maana  ‘son’ | Bahasa Indonesia: anak laki-laki | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: ‘child’ + ‘male’.

ana mahua  ‘stepdaughter’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010-2019.

ana mana nana  ‘boy’ | collected on: Mangon | source: numerous | 2010-2019.

ana mehi  ‘child’/’children’ | Bahasa Indonesia: anak-anak | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: it is unclear what the mehi morpheme means.

ana mehi fina  ‘girls’ | Bahasa Indonesia: anak perempuan | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

ana mehi maana  ‘boy’ | Bahasa Indonesia: anak laki-laki | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

ana mehi nana (1)  ‘small child’ | Bahasa Indonesia: bayi | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010 | note: usually used for toddler-aged children (it is unclear what the mehi morpheme means.).

ana mehi nana (2)  ‘baby’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

ana nana (1)  ‘child’ | Bahasa Indonesia: anak | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), Kampung Ulfoa | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

ana nana (2)  ‘baby’ | Bahasa Indonesia: bayi | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: ‘child’ + ‘small’ When not used figuratively, this is limited to infants.

ana nopa  ‘grandchild’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

ana opu  ‘grandchild’ | collected on: Mangon | source: three to five consultants | 2010–2019.

ana piara  ‘adopted child’ | collected on: Mangon | source: verified from Holle list by two or more speakers unless otherwise noted | c. 1900.

ana sil  ‘adopted child’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

ana ta(ha)i  ‘baby’ | Bahasa Indonesia: anak | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Umaloya | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Fagudu tribe | 2014.

ana tiba  ‘child’/’oldest child’ | collected on: Sanana | source: verified from Holle list by two or more speakers unless otherwise noted | c. 1900.

ana-mehi  ‘small child’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

ana-mehi-fina  ‘young girl’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

ana-mehi-maana  ‘young boy’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

ana-mehi-nana  ‘baby’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

anak  ‘child’ | Bahasa Indonesia: anak | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), Kampung Ulfoa | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

anamehinana  ‘child’ | Bahasa Indonesia: anak | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), Kampung Capuli | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

angi  ‘wind’ | collected on: Mangon | source: verified from Holle list by two or more speakers unless otherwise noted | c. 1900 | note: likely loan from Bahasa Indonesia.

ani  ‘who’ | Bahasa Indonesia: siapa | collected on: Mangon | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

ap  ‘fire’ | Bahasa Indonesia: api | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Umaloya, Kampung Wailau, Kampung Sama | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Fagudu, Falahu, Facei tribes | 2014.

ap / ‘ap  ‘fire’/’light’ | Bahasa Indonesia: api / lampu / cahaya | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010 | note: ranges from ‘light’ in general to modern electric lighting.

ap dawika  ‘light’ | collected on: Sanana | source: verified from Holle list by two or more speakers unless otherwise noted | c. 1900 | note: the form is correct, but it better translates to ‘daylight’.

apa, hapa  ‘what?’ | collected on: Mangon | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

apakid  ‘to hear’ | Bahasa Indonesia: mendengar | collected on: Sanana | source: verified from Holle list by two or more speakers unless otherwise noted | c. 1900 | note: this Holle list entry is poorly translated, as it misses the consultant’s framing of the term. What the consultant actually said was a-paked ‘I hear’ (a- + baked with intervocalic fortition).

apel  ‘apple’ | Bahasa Indonesia: apel (Loan) | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

apfe’i  ‘smoke’ | Bahasa Indonesia: asap | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Umaloya | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Fagudu tribe | 2014.

apfee  ‘smoke’ | Bahasa Indonesia: asap | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), Kampung Ulfoa | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

apfei  ‘smoke’ | Bahasa Indonesia: asap | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Wailau, Kampung Sama | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Falahu, Facei tribes | 2014.

apfei / apfe  ‘smoke’ | Bahasa Indonesia: asap | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010 | note: see also bafei, a general term not limited to the source of smoky-ness.

api  ‘fire’ | Bahasa Indonesia: api | collected on: Mangon | source: numerous | 2010 | note: loan from Bahasa Indonesia.

apifei  ‘smoke’ | Bahasa Indonesia: asap | collected on: Mangon | source: three to five consultants | 2010.

apleha  ‘ashtray’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010 | note: literally ‘fire location’.

April  ‘April’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

apu  ‘fire’ | collected on: Mangon, CMD villages | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

arbab (1)  ‘violin’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: I am skeptical of this Holle list item. arab does also mean Arab in Sula, so it seems likely that the consultant was shown a picture of a violin and responded arab meaning, ‘that’s something the Arabs have’. At that time, and to a degree now, Arabs were considered worldly travelers. My fieldwork also collected arbab as ‘arbab’/’boss’.

arbab (2)  ‘arbab’/’boss’ | Bahasa Indonesia: arbab | collected on: Sanana, Pohea | source: single speaker (Fagudu tribe) | 2010 | note: loan from Arabic arbab.

as  ‘dog’ | Bahasa Indonesia: anjing | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010 | note: see also fako.

as li  ‘to bark’ | collected on: Sanana | source: verified from Holle list by two or more speakers unless otherwise noted | c. 1900 | note: lit. dog’ + ‘speech’.

asli  ‘original’/’indigenous’ | Bahasa Indonesia: asli | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: loan from Bahasa Indonesia.

asu  ‘dog’ | Bahasa Indonesia: anjing | collected on: Mangon | source: natural speech samples. | 2015.

at  ‘tongs’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

ata bau  ‘grasshopper’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

atabau (eb)  ‘locust’/’swarm’/’infestation’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

atau  ‘or’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

atuf akfa  ‘to ransom’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

aturan  ‘rule’/’law’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

au  ‘bamboo’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

au foku  ‘joint in bamboo’ | Bahasa Indonesia: sambungan bambu | collected on: Mangon, Waitulia village | source: numerous | 2014.

au lewa  ‘bamboo sections between joints’ | Bahasa Indonesia: bagian bambu di antara sendi | collected on: Mangon, Waitulia village | source: two to three consultants | 2014.

au ponta  ‘bamboo’ | collected on: Mangon | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: I was unable to verify this form, It could be dialect or a part of the bamboo plant.

au sanga  ‘bamboo branch’ | Bahasa Indonesia: cabang bambu | collected on: Mangon, Waitulia village | source: two to three consultants | 2014.

awa (1)  ‘farm, field, garden’ | Bahasa Indonesia: kebun, ladang | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

awa (2)  AUX/’still’/’yet’ | Bahasa Indonesia: masih | collected on: Sanana | source: Duwila; Fagudu Tribe, Waibao village | 2010–2019.

awa bira  ‘rice-field (dry)’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

awa pamasi  ‘rice-field (dry)’ | collected on: Mangon | source: three to five consultants | 2010.

awan  ‘cloud’ | collected on: Mangon | source: three to five consultants | 2010.

aya  ‘great’/’large’ | Bahasa Indonesia: besar | collected on: all regions | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

aya kadiga  ‘bigger’/’huge’ | Bahasa Indonesia: lebih besar / sangat besar | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

aya kadigadiga  ‘biggest’ | Bahasa Indonesia: terbessar | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous (Fagudu Tribe Pohea village) | 2010–2019.

ba (1)  ‘follower’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

ba (2)  ‘to buy’ | Bahasa Indonesia: membeli | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon tribe | 2014.

ba gahowa  ‘why’/’how’ | Bahasa Indonesia: kenapa, bagaimana | collected on: Sanana | source: verified from Holle list by two or more speakers unless otherwise noted | c. 1900.

ba leu  ‘in, inside’ | Bahasa Indonesia: [di] dalam | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), Kampung Capuli | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

ba ne’u  ‘underneath’ | Bahasa Indonesia: di bawah | collected on: Mangon, Capuli village | source: three to five consultants | 2015 | note: there is significant phonetic overlap between o and a in Sula. Many words are produced with one or the other depending on the speaker (regional variation), but all dialects do seem to maintain both o and a as distinct phonemes. Compounding the difficulty in explaining their overlap, some speakers seem to alternate within the same word with no clear contextual trigger. For example a Capuli speaker provided b

o heha ‘underneath’ and b

a neu ‘underneath’. She did not have a reason for the alternation, but said that they had to be that way (other speakers I worked with did not all agree with her). I suspect an elusive phonological condition exists that causes phonetic vowels to overlap or be substituted, but much regional and speaker variation renders the condition unclear. It will take a long-term, onsite study of the language to sufficiently explain the phenomenon.

ba-  verbal prefix | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

ba-lea dit  ‘to dry oneself’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

ba-lela  ‘to laugh’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

ba-map  ‘to cook’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

ba-tonu  ‘to ignite’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019 | note: Mangon form.

ba’aha  ‘warm (things)’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

ba’ata  ‘tightly fitted’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

ba’ipi mboni  ‘to smile’ | collected on: Mangon | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: boni/mboni is mouth in Mangon dialect, but I could not confirm the meaning of the Holle list entry, ba’ipi. For ‘smile’ I have only ever collected balela , bara em, and the Indonesian loan, senyum.

ba’itu  ‘to flatulate’ | collected on: Mangon | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

ba’sa (pel)  ‘broken’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

ba’tuh kadiga  ‘explode strong’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

ba’uba  ‘warm (things)’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

ba’uhi  ‘night’ | Bahasa Indonesia: malam | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Umaloya, Kampung Wailau | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Fagudu tribe | 2014.

baː

  ‘to buy’ | collected on: Mangon | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

baba  ‘father’ | Bahasa Indonesia: bapak | collected on: all regions | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

baba ema  ‘funny (for men)’ | Bahasa Indonesia: lucu | collected on: Sanana | source: Duwila; Fagudu Tribe, Waibao village | 2010–2019.

baba kaka  ‘uncle FBy’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: this Holle list entry simply translates to ‘father’s sibling’. It contains no relative age distinction.

baba ma’uwa  ‘stepparents’ | collected on: Mangon | source: three to five consultants | 2010–2019.

baba mahua  ‘stepfather’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

baba tam  ‘father-in-law’ | Bahasa Indonesia: bapak mertua | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

baba tina  ‘mute’/’uncle FBo’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: this Holle list entry is confusing. As I understand these morphemes, this should mean ‘father hear/listen’.

baba tinga, baba koko  ‘uncle MB’ | collected on: Mangon | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

babahu  ‘uncle’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

baben  ‘turtle’ | Bahasa Indonesia: penyu | collected on: Sanana, Malbufa village | source: single consultant | 2019.

babenu  ‘tortoise’ | Bahasa Indonesia: kura-kura darat | collected on: Mangon, Waitulia village | source: numerous | 2014.

babiku  ‘big’/’fat’ | Bahasa Indonesia: gemuk | collected on: Mangon | source: three to five consultants | 2010.

babinu  ‘tortoise’ | collected on: Mangon | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

babir (1)  ‘blue’ | Bahasa Indonesia: biru | collected on: Sanana | source: Duwila; Fagudu Tribe, Waibao village | 2010–2019.

babir (2)  ‘green’ | Bahasa Indonesia: hijau | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Umaloya, Kampung Sama | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Fagudu, Facei tribes | 2014.

babiru kaulosa  ‘green leaf’ | Bahasa Indonesia: hijau | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon tribe | 2014.

babisa  ‘poison’/’poisonous’ | Bahasa Indonesia: beracun | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

babua (1)  ‘to bear fruit’ | Bahasa Indonesia: berbuah | collected on: Sanana | source: natural speech samples. | 2010–2019 | note: bua is a loan from Bahasa Indonesia. This form is a calque of berbua.

babua (2)  ‘crazy’/’delirious’ | Bahasa Indonesia: gila | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

babuk  ‘bent’/’crooked’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

babunu  ‘langsat fruit’ | collected on: Mangon | source: three to five consultants | 2010–2019.

bacarita  ‘story’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: likely Sula morphology on a Bahasa Indonesia loan, cerita.

badaeti (1)  ‘grass’ | Bahasa Indonesia: barumput | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon tribe | 2014.

badaeti (2)  ‘branch’ | collected on: Mangon | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

badafu  ‘straight’ | collected on: Mangon | source: three to five consultants | 2010–2019.

badagana  ‘to dream’ | Bahasa Indonesia: bermimpi | collected on: Mangon | source: numerous | 2014.

badandu  ‘thunder’ | Bahasa Indonesia: guntur | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon tribe | 2014.

badasa  ‘thin’/’skinny’ | collected on: Mangon | source: three to five consultants | 2010–2019.

badium  ‘calm’ | Bahasa Indonesia: tenang | collected on: Sanana | source: Duwila; Fagudu Tribe, Waibao village | 2010–2019.

badona  ‘to burn’ | Bahasa Indonesia: membakar | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), Kampung Capuli | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

badu  ‘jacket (for men)’ | collected on: Mangon | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

baeha  ‘to wash’ | (especially laundry) | Bahasa Indonesia: cucian, mencuci | collected on: Sanana | source: Duwila; Fagudu Tribe, Waibao village | 2010–2019.

baeo  ‘bad’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

baeo / baeu  ‘bad (not good)’ | Bahasa Indonesia: jelek | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bafa  ‘to carry on the shoulder or back’ | Bahasa Indonesia: memikul | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bafai  ‘to sneeze’ | Bahasa Indonesia: bersin | collected on: Mangon, Ulfoa village | source: numerous | 2015.

bafe  sleek unicornfish (naso hexacanthus) | collected on: Mangon, Waitulia village | source: Waitulia fishermen | 2014.

bafe / bafei  ‘smoke’, ‘fog’, ‘storm’, ‘grey’ | Bahasa Indonesia: asap, abu-abu | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bafee (1)  ‘fog’ | Bahasa Indonesia: kabut | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), Kampung Ulfoa | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

bafee (2)  ‘smoke’ | Bahasa Indonesia: asap | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), Kampung Ulfoa | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

bafee (3)  ‘green’ | Bahasa Indonesia: hijau | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Wailau | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Falahu tribe | 2014.

bafei (1)  ‘gray color’/’fog’/’smoke’ | Bahasa Indonesia: kabut, abuabu | collected on: Mangon all regions | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

bafei (2)  ‘green’ | Bahasa Indonesia: hijau | collected on: Sanana | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

bafel  ‘fog’ | Bahasa Indonesia: kabut | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), Kampung Wai U | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

bafoi pa  ‘old’/’a long time’ | Bahasa Indonesia: sudah lama | collected on: Mangon, Waitulia village | source: numerous | 2014.

bag  ‘thick’/’fat’ | Bahasa Indonesia: tebal | collected on: all regions | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

baga’oa, bagoa, bagano  ‘why’/’how’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

bagahoa  ‘why’/’how’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

bagahoa / bagaoa / bagoa  ‘why’/’how’ | Bahasa Indonesia: kenapa, bagaimana | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: variation in words with intervocalic h indicate different stages of a language change across various dialect communities.

bagamai  ‘salty’ | collected on: Mangon | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

bagano  ‘why’/’how’ | Bahasa Indonesia: kenapa, bagaimana | collected on: Mangon | source: three to five consultants | 2014.

baganoki  ‘how?’ | Bahasa Indonesia: bagaimana | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon tribe | 2014.

bagau  ‘lie (not tell truth), impossible (thing)’ | Bahasa Indonesia: bohong | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bagawagi  ‘fat’ | Bahasa Indonesia: gemuk | collected on: Mangon | source: three to five consultants | 2010.

bagila  ‘pure’/’perfect’/’clean’ | e.g. bagila gan in lal ‘pure as her/his soul’ | Bahasa Indonesia: bersih | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bago(ː

)  ‘cold’ | collected on: Mangon | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

bagoa  ‘cold (temp)’/’the cool season’/’fresh’ | Bahasa Indonesia: dingin, musim dingin | collected on: Sanana | source: natural speech samples. | 2010–2019.

bagoo  ‘cold’ | Bahasa Indonesia: dingin | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon tribe | 2010–2019.

bagu  ‘thick’/’fat’ | Bahasa Indonesia: tebal | collected on: Mangon | source: three to five consultants | 2010–2019.

bagu lia  ‘shy’/’timid’ | Bahasa Indonesia: malu | collected on: Mangon | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

baha (1)  ‘to blow’ | e.g. the wind | collected on: Mangon, Capuli village | source: numerous | 2015.

baha (2)  ‘to buy’ | Bahasa Indonesia: membeli | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Umaloya, Kampung Wailau, Kampung Sama | source: natural speech samples. | 2014.

baha (3)  ‘spice’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

baha / ba  ‘to buy’/’to purchase’/’to shop’ | Bahasa Indonesia: membeli, belanja | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

baha-ha  ‘spicy’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

baha(ha) / ba’a(ha)  ‘spicy (hot food)’ | Bahasa Indonesia: pedas | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

bahaha  ‘warm’ | Bahasa Indonesia: panas | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Sama | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Facei tribe | 2014.

bahaka  ‘to give birth’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

bahakur  ‘morinda atrocarpus’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: I think this is jackfruit.

bahal (1)  ’embarrassed’/’shy’ | Bahasa Indonesia: malu | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: possibly reddening in the face is a metaphor for blossoming (also bahal).

bahal (2)  ‘to blossom’ | e.g. kau bahal ‘blossoming tree’ | Bahasa Indonesia: mekar | collected on: Sanana | source: Duwila; Fagudu Tribe, Waibao village | 2015 | note: see also hal.

bahal, kau bahal  ‘flower’ | collected on: Sanana, Kampung Umaloya | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

bahas  ‘to cheat’ | Bahasa Indonesia: menipu | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: see also tipu.

bahasa  ‘language’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

baheha  ‘to wash’ | (especially to launder clothes) | Bahasa Indonesia: cucian | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010 | note: see also baeha. Variation in words with intervocalic h indicate different stages of a language change across various dialect communities.

bahiu  ‘blue’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

bahoa  which’/’why’/’how’ | e.g. hia baoa ‘which one’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

bahu (1)  ‘early’ | Bahasa Indonesia: lekas | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bahu (2)  ‘back’ | Bahasa Indonesia: punggung | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Wailau | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Falahu tribe | 2014.

bahu (3)  ‘quick’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

bahu (bahu)  ‘quickly’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

bahu bahu  ‘fast, quick, in a hurry, soon, urgent’ | Bahasa Indonesia: cepat, tergesa-gesa, segera | collected on: Sanana | source: Duwila; Fagudu Tribe, Waibao village | 2010–2019.

bahu pama  ‘fragile (easy break) ‘ | Bahasa Indonesia: gampang pecah | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: ‘quick’ + ‘break’.

bahu-pahu  ‘quick’ (with emphasis) | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

bahuol  ‘quick / fast’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

baifon  ‘to hide’ | (hide oneself) | Bahasa Indonesia: sembunyi | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010 | note: see also fongi, dori fon, dau fon.

baina  ‘share’, ‘part’ | Bahasa Indonesia: bagi, bagian | collected on: Sanana | source: Duwila; Fagudu Tribe, Waibao village | 2010–2019.

baka  ‘to give birth’ | Bahasa Indonesia: penyu | collected on: Sanana, Malbufa village | source: single consultant | 2019 | note: likely euphemism.

baka baret  ‘stop’/’prevent’/’lay off’/’fire’ | Bahasa Indonesia: menghentikan | collected on: Sanana | source: Duwila; Fagudu Tribe, Waibao village | 2010–2019.

baka han han  ‘several’ | Bahasa Indonesia: beberapa orang | collected on: Sanana | source: Duwila; Fagudu Tribe, Waibao village | 2010–2019.

baka kehi  ‘construction’ | Bahasa Indonesia: pembangunan | collected on: Sanana | source: Duwila; Fagudu Tribe, Waibao village | 2010–2019.

baka kili yai  ‘sit (with the knees bent to one side)’ | collected on: Mangon | source: verified from Holle list by two or more speakers unless otherwise noted | c. 1900.

baka leng  ‘to lie down’ | Bahasa Indonesia: berbaring | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Wailau | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Falahu tribe | 2014.

baka nau  ‘message’/’to translate’ | (direct digital messaging or conveying a message on another’s behalf) | Bahasa Indonesia: pesan / menerjemahkan / terjemahkan | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: ‘make’ + ‘known’ (see also baka paked ‘make’ + ‘heard’).

baka paked  ‘message’ | (direct digital messaging or conveying a message on another’s behalf) | Bahasa Indonesia: pesan | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: ‘make’ + ‘known’ (see also baka nau ‘make’ + ‘known’).

baka pihu  ‘return something’ | e.g. mon saf baka pihu ‘return your drinking bowl’ | collected on: Sanana | source: three to five consultants | 2010 | note: the p from pihu is an example of intervocalic fortition.

baka tab  ‘muddy ground’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

baka tin tui / baka tini / baka tui  ‘to point’ | Bahasa Indonesia: menunjuk | collected on: Mangon, Waitulia village | source: numerous | 2014.

baka toya  ‘point, show’ | Bahasa Indonesia: menunjuk [tunjuk] | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

baka wak  ‘warn’/’remind’ | Bahasa Indonesia: memperingatkan [ingatkan] | collected on: Sanana | source: Duwila; Fagudu Tribe, Waibao village | 2010–2019.

baka yea  ‘delayed’ | Bahasa Indonesia: tertunda | collected on: Sanana | source: Duwila; Fagudu Tribe, Waibao village | 2010–2019.

baka-  causative prefix | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

baka-baret  ‘to stop’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

baka-gehi  ‘construction’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019 | note: literally ‘make standing’.

baka-kehi  ‘to erect, construct’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

baka-nau  ‘to message’ | (direct digital messaging or conveying a message on another’s behalf) (lit. ‘make known’) | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

baka-paked  ‘to message’ | (digital messaging or conveying a message on another’s behalf) | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

baka-toya  to point’, ‘to show’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

bakadigapa  ‘freeze’ | collected on: Mangon | source: single consultant | 2010 | note: kadiga ‘strong’ + pa intervocalic fortition from the first syllable of bamoda ‘cold’.

bakafa  ‘to yawn’ | Bahasa Indonesia: menguap | collected on: Mangon | source: numerous | 2014.

bakafa (eya)  ‘to yawn’ | Bahasa Indonesia: menguap | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Wailau | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Falahu tribe | 2014.

bakafaaya  ‘to yawn’ | Bahasa Indonesia: menguap | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bakagi  ‘to fall’ | Bahasa Indonesia: jatuh | collected on: Mangon, Waitulia village | source: two to three consultants | 2014 | note: see also bua.

bakago  ‘dumb’ | collected on: Mangon | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

bakahan  ‘near’ | Bahasa Indonesia: dekat | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

bakahan maha / bakahan mahus  ‘rare’ | e.g. a steak | Bahasa Indonesia: setengah masak | collected on: Sanana | source: Duwila; Fagudu Tribe, Waibao village | 2010–2019 | note: this translation is uncertain, he might have been saying what to do with undercooked meat rather than translating.

bakahan-han  ‘prepared’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

bakahas  ‘to touch’ | Bahasa Indonesia: menyentuh / sentuh | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bakai  ‘to marry’ | collected on: Sanana, Mangon | source: numerous | 2010.

bakaleng  ‘to lie down’ | Bahasa Indonesia: berbaring | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bakanau  ‘to introduce’/’to message’ | (direct digital messaging or conveying a message on another’s behalf) | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010 | note: ‘make’ + ‘know’.

bakaneu  ‘to offer’ | collected on: Mangon | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

bakaran  ‘purple’ | Bahasa Indonesia: ungu | collected on: Sanana | source: Duwila; Fagudu Tribe, Waibao village | 2010–2019.

bakareha  ‘separate’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

bakatai  ‘dirty’/’disgusting’ | Bahasa Indonesia: kotor | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bakatoya  ‘show’/’to point’/’convey’/’teach’ | e.g. baka’toya bo bahasa Sua ‘teaching Sula lang’ | Bahasa Indonesia: menunjukan / tunjuk / memberitahu / mengajar / ajar | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bakatoya bayata  ‘to stutter’ | collected on: Mangon | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

bakatoya pakasi  ‘to mumble’ | collected on: Mangon | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

bakawosa  ‘fill’ | Bahasa Indonesia: mengisi [isi] | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: I am unsure the phonemic status of this intervocalic w.

bake  ‘build’ | Bahasa Indonesia: membangun | collected on: Sanana | source: Duwila; Fagudu Tribe, Waibao village | 2010–2019.

baked  ‘hear’/’listen’/’loud’ | Bahasa Indonesia: mendengar / keras | collected on: Mangon | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bakef  ‘cough’/’cold (illness)’ | Bahasa Indonesia: batuk / pilek | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: likely antiquated. See also sangihi, sanihi.

baker  ‘hear, listen’ | Bahasa Indonesia: mendengar [dengar] | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bakiru  ‘blue’ | Bahasa Indonesia: biru | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

bakosa  ‘big’/’fat’ | Bahasa Indonesia: gemuk | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bakosa bag  ‘fat’/’grease’ | Bahasa Indonesia: lemak | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

baku  ‘to flatulate’ | Bahasa Indonesia: kentut | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

baku bantu  ‘to help’ | Bahasa Indonesia: menolong / bantu | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: likely loan from Bahasa Indonesia. See also mungkuriu.

bakumur  ‘to chew’ | Bahasa Indonesia: mengunyah | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), Kampung Capuli | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

bal (1)  ACTIVE SENTENCE AUXILIARY | collected on: Sanana | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019 | note: in auxiliary function bal can replace verbal agreement marker when pronoun is also present.

bal (2)  ‘ball’ | Bahasa Indonesia: bola | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: possible loan Dutch, bal, probably by way of Indonesian bola.

bal (3)  ‘hit’ | Bahasa Indonesia: memukul | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

bal (4)  ‘must’ | Bahasa Indonesia: harus | collected on: Sanana | source: single consultant | 2014.

bal (5)  ‘shy, ashamed’ | Bahasa Indonesia: malu | collected on: all Sanana regions | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

bala  ‘freeman’ | collected on: Mangon | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

balahai  ‘worm eggs’ | Bahasa Indonesia: telur cacing | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: I could not verify this Holle list item, but the morphemes are likely ‘ball’ + ‘dirt’.

balea  ‘to dry’/’to hang’ | e.g. clothes | Bahasa Indonesia: jemur | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: literally ‘do sun’.

balea dit  ‘to bask’/’dry oneself’ | Bahasa Indonesia: berjemur | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

baleha  ‘village’/’community location’ | Bahasa Indonesia: kampung | collected on: Sanana, Umahoya village | Source: Fagudu tribe | 2014 | note: in some communities, minimal pair with balela ‘laugh’.

balela  ‘to laugh’ | Bahasa Indonesia: tertawa | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina, (Sanana) Kampung Umaloya, Kampung Wailau, Kampung Sama | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon, Fagudu, Falahu, Facei tribes | 2014.

balela / baheha  ‘laugh’/’smile’ | Bahasa Indonesia: tertawa / senyum | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: in some communities, minimal pair with baleha ‘village’.

baleleyan  ‘celebration’ | Bahasa Indonesia: perayaan | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

baleu (1)  ‘deep’ | e.g. a deep dish | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: This is likely the result of a miscommunication in the Holle list, as I gathered the form to simply mean ‘within’.

baleu (2)  ‘within’/’inside’ | Bahasa Indonesia: dalam | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

balfongi  ‘to hide oneself’ | Bahasa Indonesia: bersembunyi | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon tribe | 2014.

bali (1)  ‘ring’ | e.g. a phone | Bahasa Indonesia: membunyikan / bunyi | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bali (2)  ‘shy’/’timid’ | Bahasa Indonesia: malu | collected on: Mangon | source: numerous | 2014-2015.

bali’ap  ‘to make a fire’ | collected on: Mangon | source: three to five consultants | 2010–2019.

baliu  ‘hatchet’/’axe’/’pickaxe’ | Bahasa Indonesia: beliung | collected on: Sanana | source: Duwila; Fagudu Tribe, Waibao village | 2010–2019.

bama  ‘to split’/’to chop’ | Bahasa Indonesia: membelah, memotong | collected on: Mangon | source: numerous | 2010, 2014.

bama (1)  ‘operation’ | (medical) | Bahasa Indonesia: pembedahan | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bama (2)  ‘to cut, to hack’ | Bahasa Indonesia: memotong | collected on: all regions | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

bama (3)  ‘to split’ | Bahasa Indonesia: membelah | collected on: all regions | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

bamaha / bama  ‘to sell’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

bamap  ‘to cook’ | Bahasa Indonesia: memasak | collected on: all regions | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

bamap (bira)  ‘to cook’ | Bahasa Indonesia: menanak | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Umaloya, Kampung Wailau | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Fagudu, Falahu tribes | 2014.

bamap / bamapu  ‘cook’ | Bahasa Indonesia: masak | collected on: Sanana, Mangon | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bamap bira  ‘to cook’ | Bahasa Indonesia: menanak | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Sama | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Facei tribe | 2014.

bamapu  ‘to cook’ | Bahasa Indonesia: memasak | collected on: Mangon | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

bamapu pamasi  ‘to cook’ | Bahasa Indonesia: menanak | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon tribe | 2014.

bamata (1)  ‘cramp’/’gone to sleep’ | (limbs) | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

bamata (2)  ‘raw’ | e.g. soklat bamata ‘raw chocolate’ | Bahasa Indonesia: mentah | collected on: Mangon, Capuli village | source: numerous | 2015.

bamin  ‘a cold’/’flu’ | Bahasa Indonesia: flu / punya pilek | collected on: Sanana | source: Duwila; Fagudu Tribe, Waibao village | 2010–2019.

bamoda  ‘cold (things)’ | collected on: Mangon | source: three to five consultants | 2010–2019.

bamok leha  ‘sacred place’ | Bahasa Indonesia: (tempat) keramat | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bampana  ‘warm’ | Bahasa Indonesia: hangat | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Umaloya | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Fagudu tribe | 2014.

bamu  ‘tame’ | collected on: Sanana | source: verified from Holle list by two or more speakers unless otherwise noted | c. 1900.

ban  ‘sexual intercourse’ | (vulgar) | Bahasa Indonesia: Bersetubuh, bercinta | collected on: Mangon, Ulfoa village | source: numerous | 2015 | note: be careful with this word. Using it incorrectly can easily instigate violence.

ban makata sigadu pia  ‘cured’ | collected on: Mangon | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

ban mapai ap  ‘to extinguish a fire’ | collected on: Sanana | source: verified from Holle list by two or more speakers unless otherwise noted | c. 1900.

bana  ‘war’ | collected on: Sanana | source: verified from Holle list by two or more speakers unless otherwise noted | c. 1900 | note: when asked, a consultant said the form sounds old fashioned. mana pau and mana fau are the common forms today. Other b~m correspondences between Holle list words and modern vocabulary should be considered for a sound change in progress.

bana au  flathead grey mullet (mugil cephalus) | collected on: Mangon, Waitulia village | source: Waitulia fishermen | 2014.

bana kanoufo  ‘bag (made from rope)’ | collected on: Mangon | source: three to five consultants | 2010–2019.

banahi  ‘to love’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

banai  ‘the day after tomorrow’ | collected on: Sanana | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019 | note: probably literally means ‘two from now’, as it is also used in ahat banai ‘the week after next’.

banap (1)  ‘to hunt’ | Bahasa Indonesia: berburu | collected on: all Sanana regions | source: numerous | 2010 | note: Sanana form. See also banapi.

banap (2)  ‘to shoot’ | e.g. shoot a gun | Bahasa Indonesia: menémbak, tembak | collected on: all Sanana regions | source: numerous | 2015.

banapi (1)  ‘to shoot’ | e.g. shoot a gun | Bahasa Indonesia: menémbak, tembak | collected on: all Mangon regions | source: numerous | 2014. | note: Mangon form. See also banap.

banapi (2)  ‘to hunt’ | Bahasa Indonesia: berburu | collected on: all Mangon regions | source: numerous | 2015.

bangal  ‘maybe’ | collected on: Sanana | source: two to three consultants | 2010-2019 | note: this seems to by mostly replaced by barankali and munkin from Bahasa Indonesia.

bangana  ‘there (distant)’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

bangana, isuna  ‘there (near addressee)’ | collected on: Mangon | source: verified from Holle list by two or more speakers unless otherwise noted | c. 1900.

bangana, neka  ‘there (near addressee)’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

bangsa  ‘tribe’/’people’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

banoi  ‘prayer’/’blessing’ | Bahasa Indonesia: doa | collected on: Sanana | source: Duwila; Fagudu Tribe, Waibao village | 2010–2019.

banta  ‘argue’ | Bahasa Indonesia: membantah | collected on: Sanana | source: Duwila; Fagudu Tribe, Waibao village | 2010–2019.

bao bot  ‘garlic’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

bao repot  ‘inconvenient’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

baoa  ‘which’ (hia baoa ‘which one’) | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

bapana  ‘to shoot’ | (especially with a bow and arrow) | Bahasa Indonesia: menembak | collected on: all regions | source: numerous | 2010.

bapikir  ‘to think’ | Bahasa Indonesia: berpikir [pikir] | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: likely loan from Bahasa Indonesia.

bapili  ‘to choose’ | Bahasa Indonesia: memilih | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), Kampung Capuli | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

bapompu  ‘dull, blunt’ | Bahasa Indonesia: tumpul | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon tribe | 2014.

bara em  ‘smile’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

baragana  ‘to dream’ | Bahasa Indonesia: bermimpi | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Sama | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Facei tribe | 2014.

baran  ‘brave’ | Bahasa Indonesia: berani (Loan) | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

barankali  ‘maybe’ | Bahasa Indonesia: mungkin | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: loan from Bahasa Indonesia.

barasa (1)  ‘sexually aroused’ | Bahasa Indonesia: terangsang | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

barasa (2)  ‘thin’/’skinny’ | e.g. a thin person | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

baret  ‘quit’/’stop’ | (cease) e.g. ba’ret sui tabak ‘to quit smoking’ | Bahasa Indonesia: berhenti | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: see also beret.

baroa  ‘weak’ | Bahasa Indonesia: lemah | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

baronggeng  ‘dance’ | Bahasa Indonesia: menari [tari] | collected on: Sanana | source: single consultant | 2010–2019 | note: see also ronggi, joget.

baru  ‘warrior’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: Holle postulates this as a Ternate loan.

barua  ‘a case for fabric’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: Holle postulates this as a Ternate loan.

basa ‘ ungi  ‘to love’ | collected on: Mangon | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

basa (1)  ‘language’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010 | note: reduced loan from Bahasa Indonesia Bahasa.

basa (2)  ‘breast’/’milk’ | collected on: Sanana | source: three to five consultants | 2010 | note: uncommon. See susa / sosa.

basa (3)  ‘another’/’other’ | Bahasa Indonesia: yang lain | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

basa (4)  ‘broken down’/’damaged’ | Bahasa Indonesia: rusak, jelek | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

basa (5)  ‘ugly’ | Bahasa Indonesia: rusak, jelek | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

basa (6)  ‘rotten’ | Bahasa Indonesia: busuk | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), all villages | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

basa (7)  ‘bad’ | collected on: all regions | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

basa kadiga  ‘terrible’ | Bahasa Indonesia: buruk sekali | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

basa nohi  ‘related’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

basa/patfai  ‘moldy’/’stale’/’old’/’stagnant’/’still’ | (milk, water) | collected on: Sanana, Mangon | source: numerous | 2010.

basah  ‘spoiled (food)’ | Bahasa Indonesia: busuk | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

basana  ‘to answer’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

basanasi  ‘related’ | collected on: Mangon | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

basehu  ‘to weave’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

basel  ‘to plant’ | Bahasa Indonesia: menanam | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), Kampung Ulfoa, Kampung Wai U | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

basel / baseli  ‘to plant’/’a plant’ | Bahasa Indonesia: menanam | collected on: Sanana, Mangon | source: numerous | 2014 | note: see also sel / sil.

baseli  ‘to plant’ | Bahasa Indonesia: menanam | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), Kampung Wai U, Kampung Capuli | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

baso soso  ‘to nurse at the breast’ | collected on: Mangon | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

bata  ‘wait’/’later’/’shortly’ | e.g. wait a moment | Bahasa Indonesia: menunggu, nanti | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bata mila  ‘stupid’/’idiot’ | Bahasa Indonesia: bodoh | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bataboli  ‘to turn’ | Bahasa Indonesia: berputar | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), Kampung Capuli | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

batanding  ‘game (sport)’ | Bahasa Indonesia: pertandingan (Loan) | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

batani  ‘to plant’ | Bahasa Indonesia: menanam | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon tribe | 2014.

batar  ‘bet’ | Bahasa Indonesia: teruhan | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bate  ‘to shatter’ | collected on: Mangon | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

bati  ‘branch’ | Bahasa Indonesia: dahan | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), Kampung Capuli | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

batif  ‘steep’ | (hill) | Bahasa Indonesia: curam | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

batina  ‘shallow’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010-2019.

batona  ‘to burn’ | Bahasa Indonesia: membakar | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), Kampung Ulfoa, Kampung Wai U | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

batu (1)  ‘thunder’ | Bahasa Indonesia: guntur | collected on: Mangon, Wai U village | source: single consultant | 2014 | note: this is a questionable entry.

batu (2)  ‘to grow’ | collected on: Mangon, CMD villages | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

batuka (1)  ’empty’ | collected on: Mangon | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: I suspect this Holle list entry is due to an informant misunderstanding.

batuka (2)  ‘bay’ | collected on: Mangon | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

batuka (3)  ‘inside’/’in’ | Bahasa Indonesia: di | collected on: Mangon | source: three to five consultants | 2010–2019.

batut  ‘to plant’ | collected on: Sanana, Kampung Umaloya | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

batut (bira)  ‘to pound, beat’ | Bahasa Indonesia: menumbuk | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Umaloya | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Fagudu tribe | 2014.

batutu  ‘to grow plants’/’to pound/unhusk rice’ | Bahasa Indonesia: tumbuh, menumbuk | collected on: Mangon, Ulfoa village | source: numerous | 2014 | note: I find it somewhat implausible that this form means both ‘to grow (nonspecific) plants’ and also ‘to pound rice’, stranger things in language have happened, but error seems more likely. Oddly batutu was given for both tumbuh and menumbuk by the same group of people just seven words apart on an elicitation sheet. This needs to be investigated further.

bau (1)  CAUSATIVE MORPHEME | Bahasa Indonesia: melakukan/lakukan, buat | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: causative morpheme.

bau (2)  ‘to hit’/’to strike’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010 | note: I am doubtful that bau itself can mean ‘hit’. It is more likely that it acts as a causative morpheme and speakers drop the complement when the meaning is contextually clear.

bau (3)  ‘back’ (body) | Bahasa Indonesia: punggung | collected on: Mangon, Ulfoa village | source: numerous | 2014 | note: see also sanapahu.

bau bal faa  ‘produce’ (make) | Bahasa Indonesia: memproduksi | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: literally ‘make’ + active AUX + ‘thing’.

bau bena  ‘rising tide’ | (Bahasa Indonesia: ‘arus naik’ ID) | collected on: Mangon, Waitulia village | source: Waitulia fishermen | 2014 | note: literally ‘make go up’. In Waitulia, rising tides are said to be accompanied by a strong, fast eastward current. The reverse for falling tides.

bau faa sel  ‘to grow’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

bau gahoa / bau gaoa / bau goa  ‘why’/’how’ | Bahasa Indonesia: bagaimana | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

bau gamiha paka  ‘clean’ | Bahasa Indonesia: membersihkan | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bau ganoa  ‘how?’ | Bahasa Indonesia: bagaimana | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Wailau | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Falahu tribe | 2014.

bau goa  ‘how?’ | Bahasa Indonesia: bagaimana | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Sama | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Facei tribe | 2014.

bau lal suka (dit)  ‘to enjoy (oneself)’ | Bahasa Indonesia: menikmati | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bau lela  ‘have fun, humorous, fun, joke’ | Bahasa Indonesia: bersenang-senang, lelucon | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bau leu  ‘to dig’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010 | note: see also geka, gika, gahu.

bau ma’i (kena) / ba ma’i (kena)  ‘to fish’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

bau makata bihu pia  ‘cured’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: these morphemes are ‘make’ + ‘medicine’ + ‘return’ + ‘safe/good/person’.

bau maneha  ‘true, right (correct)’/’repair’ | Bahasa Indonesia: benar | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bau mata  ‘kill, murder’ | Bahasa Indonesia: membunuh [bunhu] | collected on: Sanana, Mangon | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bau mata ap(i)  ‘to turn off’/’to extinguish’ | e.g. to kill the lights | collected on: Mangon | source: numerous | 2010 | note: lit. kill’ + ‘fire’.

bau meneha  ‘recognise’/’prepare’ | Bahasa Indonesia: mengenal | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bau meneha hal  ‘recommend’ | Bahasa Indonesia: rekomendasikan | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bau mua  ‘to finish’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: intransitive.

bau mua pel  ‘finish’ | Bahasa Indonesia: menyelesaikan [selesai] | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bau munara  ‘to work’ | Bahasa Indonesia: bekerja, kerja | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bau neu  ‘falling tide’ | (Bahasa Indonesia: ‘arus kurun’ ID) | collected on: Mangon, Waitulia village | source: Waitulia fishermen | 2014 | note: literally ‘make go down’. In Waitulia, falling tides are said to be accompanied by a strong, fast westward current. The reverse for rising tides.

bau nomor  ‘score’ | Bahasa Indonesia: membuat angka | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bau pai ap  ‘to turn off a light’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010-2019 | note: literally ‘make’ + ‘finished’ + ‘fire’.

bau pais  ‘reserve’ | Bahasa Indonesia: memesan [pesan] | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bau pelajar  ‘study’ | ID: belajar | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010 | note: loan from Bahasa Indonesia.

bau perinta joh  ‘worship’ | Bahasa Indonesia: ibadat (Loan?) | collected on: Sanana | source: single consultant | 2010–2019 | note: see also sabeya, sabia.

bau pia  ‘peace’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

bau sala  ‘fault (guilt)’/’mistake’ | bau sala fa ‘feel guilty about something’ | Bahasa Indonesia: salah | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bau salam  ‘reserve’ | Bahasa Indonesia: memesan [pesan] (Loan) | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bau senang senang  ‘have fun, humorous, fun’ | Bahasa Indonesia: bersenang-senang (Loan) | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: loan from Bahasa Indonesia.

bau sin  ‘to get revenge’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

bau tufi talinga  ‘pierce ear’ | Bahasa Indonesia: menusuk | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon tribe | 2014.

bau-  causative prefix | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

bau-gehi  ‘construction’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019 | note: literally ‘make standing’.

bau-mata  ‘kill, murder’ (lit. ‘make dead’) | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

bau-munara  ‘to work’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

bau-pia  ‘to make peace’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

bau-tuf  ‘make a hole’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

baubagila  ‘rub’ | collected on: Mangon | source: three to five consultants | 2010.

bauhi  ‘late evening’/’night’ | Bahasa Indonesia: malam | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: see also buhi, bo uhi.

bauhi yau  ‘midnight’ | Bahasa Indonesia: tengah malam | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bauhi’ik  ‘tonight’ | Bahasa Indonesia: malam ini | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: literally ‘night this’.

baumanara  ‘job’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

baumapu  ‘to cook’ | collected on: Mangon, CMD villages | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

baumata  ‘to murder’ | Bahasa Indonesia: membunuh / bunuh | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bawa  ‘onion’/’shallot’/’garlic’ | collected on: Mangon | source: three to five consultants | 2010.

bawamia  ‘red onion/shallot’ | collected on: Sanana | source: single consultant | 2010 | note: calque from Bahasa Indonesia bawang merah.

bawel (1)  ‘invite’ | Bahasa Indonesia: mengundang [undang] | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bawel (2)  ‘to climb’ | Bahasa Indonesia: naik | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

bawiti  ‘fishing with a line & pole’ | collected on: Mangon, Waitulia village | source: two to three consultants | 2014.

bawowu  ‘to shout’ | Bahasa Indonesia: berteriak [teriak] | collected on: Sanana | source: single consultant | 2010–2019 | note: I am unsure the phonemic status of the intervocalic w’s.

bayata  ‘tightly fitted’ | collected on: Mangon | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

bayon  ‘mouth’ | Bahasa Indonesia: mulut | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bayon kol  ‘lips’ | Bahasa Indonesia: bibir | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bayu  ‘hungry’ | collected on: Mangon | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: see boya The Holle form has implications on the phonetically unmotivated sound change in Proto-Sula described in chapter 2.

be  ‘to throw’ | Bahasa Indonesia: melémparkan | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon tribe | 2014.

be’  ‘day’ | Bahasa Indonesia: hari | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

be’ina waris  ‘to inherit’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

be’u  ‘to tie up, fasten’ | Bahasa Indonesia: mengikat | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

be(hi)for  ‘liver’ | Bahasa Indonesia: hati | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Wailau | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Falahu tribe | 2014 | note: I am fairly sure this is ‘lungs’.

beː

  ‘to throw’ | collected on: Mangon | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

bea  ‘tax’ | Bahasa Indonesia: pajak | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

beb  ‘duck’ | Bahasa Indonesia: bebek | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

beda  ‘different’ | Bahasa Indonesia: berbeda | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bedagang  ‘to trade’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

bedah  ‘powder’ | Bahasa Indonesia: pupur | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bedi  ‘night’ | Bahasa Indonesia: malam | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon tribe | 2014.

befa (1)  ‘to hit’ | Bahasa Indonesia: memalu | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Sama | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Facei tribe | 2014.

befa (2)  ‘time’/’o’clock’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

befa ga pila  ‘at what time?’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

bega  ‘tuna’ | e.g. kena bega ‘tuna fish’ | collected on: Mangon | source: three to five consultants | 2010.

behetan  ‘breast’/’chest’ | Bahasa Indonesia: dada | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

behi  ‘to throw’/’toss’ | Bahasa Indonesia: melemparkan | collected on: Sanana, Mangon | source: numerous | 2010.

behi (tan)  ‘breast” | Bahasa Indonesia: i.e. ‘chest’ | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Umaloya, Kampung Wailau | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Fagudu, Falahu tribes | 2014.

behi dagati  ‘hard to breath’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

behifon  ‘liver’ | Bahasa Indonesia: hati | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Sama | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Facei tribe | 2014.

behifor (1)  ‘lungs’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

behifor (2)  ‘liver’ | Bahasa Indonesia: hati | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Umaloya | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Fagudu tribe | 2014 | note: several speakers produced this form for ‘liver’ though I expect it is either another example of body-part metonymy or speech error and the more specific term is kila.

behitan  ‘chest (body)’ | Bahasa Indonesia: dada | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

ben ben  ‘wall’ | (inside or outside wall) | Bahasa Indonesia: dinding, tembok | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bena (1)  ‘to climb’/’to ascend’ | e.g. stairs, ladder, or mountain | Bahasa Indonesia: naik | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: once recorded as ben in Fatkouyun village.

bena (2)  ‘ride a vehicle or an animal’ | (e.g. bike or horse) | Bahasa Indonesia: naik | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bena (3)  ‘to board a vehicle’ | e.g. bena lota ‘to board a boat’ | Bahasa Indonesia: naik | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bena (kau)  ‘to climb as one climbs a tree’ | Bahasa Indonesia: memanjat | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina, (Sanana) Kampung Umaloya, Kampung Wailau | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon, Fagudu, Falahu tribes | 2014.

bena (lida)  ‘to climb as one ascends a slope’ | Bahasa Indonesia: mendaki | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina, (Sanana) Kampung Umaloya, Kampung Wailau | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon, Fagudu, Falahu tribes | 2014.

bena lepa  ‘climb up’ | (e.g. a ladder) | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

benai  ‘day after tomorrow’ | Bahasa Indonesia: lusa | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bend  ‘band’ | Bahasa Indonesia: band | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

benteng  ‘fortification’ | collected on: Sanana | source: single consultant | 2010–2019 | note: loan from Bahasa Indonesia.

ber baris  ‘queue’/’line’ | Bahasa Indonesia: antri | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: loan from Bahasa Indonesia.

ber beda  ‘other’ | Bahasa Indonesia: lain | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: loan from Bahasa Indonesia.

ber sukur  ‘grateful’ | e.g. sukur eb-eb ‘thanks very much’ | Bahasa Indonesia: berterima kasih | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: loan from Bahasa Indonesia. and Arabic.

beran  ‘daring’/’brave’ | collected on: Sanana | source: two to three consultants | 2010-2019 | note: possible loan from Bahasa Indonesia. See also baran.

berbeda  ‘other’ | Bahasa Indonesia: lain | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

berbisa berbahaya  ‘danger poisonous’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010 | note: loan from Bahasa Indonesia.

beret / bret  ‘stop’/’prevent’ | e.g. (1) bret pai ‘stop a moment’ (2) bret saik pai ‘stop here a moment’ | Bahasa Indonesia: berhenti | collected on: Sanana | source: Duwila; Fagudu Tribe, Waibao village | 2010–2019 | note: see also baret.

berjanji  ‘promise’ | e.g. a-berjanji ‘I promise’ | Bahasa Indonesia: berjanji [janji] | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: loan from Bahasa Indonesia.

berua  ‘case for cloth’ | collected on: Mangon | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

beruwi  ‘to burn’ | collected on: Mangon | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

besa  ‘ugly (things)’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

besah  ‘off (spoiled)’ | Bahasa Indonesia: busuk | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bet  ‘day’ | Bahasa Indonesia: hari | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Umaloya, Kampung Wailau, Kampung Sama | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Fagudu, Falahu, Facei tribes | 2014.

bet / betu  ‘day’/’time’ | Bahasa Indonesia: hari, waktu | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bet genei pihu  ‘in (six) days’ | Bahasa Indonesia: dalam (enam) hari lagi | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bet hia bet hia  ‘per day, everyday’ | Bahasa Indonesia: per hari, setiap hari | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bet ik (1)  ‘now’/’the present’ | (temporal) | Bahasa Indonesia: sekarang | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: CMD dialect has bet iku, an interdialect form between Sanana and Mangon.

bet ik (2)  ‘today’ | Bahasa Indonesia: hari | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: CMD dialect has bet iku, an interdialect form between Sanana and Mangon.

bet pila (1)  ‘anytime’ | Bahasa Indonesia: kapan saja | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: see also bit pila.

bet pila (2)  ‘when?’ | Bahasa Indonesia: kapan | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina, (Sanana) Kampung Umaloya, Kampung Wailau, Kampung Sama | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon, Fagudu, Falahu, Facei tribes | 2014.

bet pila / bet pi / betu pila / bet pila (hoa)  ‘when’ | Bahasa Indonesia: waktu, kapan | collected on: Mangon, Sanana | source: numerous | 2010 | note: see also bit pila.

bet pila, bet pila hoa  ‘when’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

bet-pila  ‘when’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

bet’ik  ‘today’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

beti (1)  ‘to say’ | Bahasa Indonesia: berkata | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon tribe | 2014.

beti (2)  ‘day’ | Bahasa Indonesia: hari | collected on: Mangon, CMD villages | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

betia  ‘daily’/’always’ | Bahasa Indonesia: harian, selalu | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

betik  ‘now’/’today’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

betu  ‘day’ | Bahasa Indonesia: hari | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon tribe | 2014.

betu pila  ‘when?’ | collected on: Mangon | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

betu pila,  ‘when’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

betuka  ‘today’ | Bahasa Indonesia: hari | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon tribe | 2014.

beu (1)  ‘tight, fast’/’to fasten’/’to tie up’ | e.g. a tight knot | Bahasa Indonesia: sempit | collected on: all regions | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

beu (2)  ‘to tie up, fasten’ | Bahasa Indonesia: mengikat | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina, (Sanana) Kampung Wailau | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon, Falahu | 2010–2019.

beya  ‘tax’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

bi  ‘comb’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

bi-naka  ‘steal’ | Bahasa Indonesia: mencuri | collected on: Mangon | Collins | 1981 | note: see also bilnaka.

bia (1)  ‘from’ | Bahasa Indonesia: dari | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bia (2)  ‘since’ | (temporal) | Bahasa Indonesia: sejak | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bia (3)  ‘of’/’more than’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

bia (4)  ablative morpheme | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

bia neka  ‘recently’ | Bahasa Indonesia: baru-baru | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

biasa  ‘ordinary’ | Bahasa Indonesia: biasa (Loan) | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: loan from Bahasa Indonesia.

bib  ‘goat’ | Bahasa Indonesia: kambing | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

bib gamei  ‘to bleat’/’moo’ | (goat & cow sounds) | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: I was unable to verify this Holle list entry, but I can confidently say it does not mean ‘cow sounds’ as bib means goat. My consultants provided bib li ‘bleat’. I suspect gamei is an onomatopoeia, and that bib gamei glosses as ‘goat’s gamei’.

bicara  ‘to say’ | Bahasa Indonesia: berkata | collected on: Mangon, Ulfoa village | source: numerous | 2014.

biha lubayon  ‘to smile’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: lubayon is likely an archaic longer form of bayon ‘mouth’. The word lu can also mean ‘few in number’, but it is hard to imagine how that would help to form a term for ‘smile’. biha is a mystery, none of my guesses regarding possible abbreviations, contractions, and possible compounding seem logical for ‘smile’. It is of course possible that the form is a result of miscommunication and that it would make sense in context.

bihai  ‘until’/’in’ (time) | Bahasa Indonesia: sampai | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: I was unable to verify this term. The common word for ‘until’ is bis, and there is no indication that it was a recently introduced word. There are also no known compound words or phrases retaining bihai. It is a possible dialect form, and there is a distant possibility that it could have been a since-lost cousin form to bis that has since dropped from the language (e.g. *bisai > bihai in one dialect and *bisai > bis in other dialects). Instances of s>h are found in Sula, but it would be a stretch to conclude this from a single, century-old form without knowing more about the speaker, region, or the speaker’s other word pronunciations—and unfortunately the Holle lists do not provide any of this. It is unfortunately even unclear how many speakers were consulted for each list.

bihi  ‘scissors’ | Bahasa Indonesia: gunting | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bihifor  ‘heart’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: I am quite confident that this Holle list item is an error caused by misunderstanding when pointing to the chest, as I have collected behifor countless times for ‘lungs’, and this is corroborated in phrases like behi dagati ‘hard to breathe’ (literally ‘lung narrow’).

bihoa  ‘when?’ | Bahasa Indonesia: bila | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Wailau | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Falahu tribe | 2014.

bihu (1)  HABITUAL INCEPTIVE ASPECT MARKER | (‘again from now’) | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: see also pihu, gaf.

bihu (2)  ‘to return’/’embarking on a return’ | Bahasa Indonesia: pulang | collected on: Sanana | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019 | note: see also pihu (intervocalic devoicing).

bii  ‘scissors’ | Bahasa Indonesia: gunting | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bil  ‘to see not volition intentionally’ | Bahasa Indonesia: melihat | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Umaloya | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Fagudu tribe | 2014.

bilnaka  ‘to steal’ | Bahasa Indonesia: mencuri | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Umaloya, Kampung Wailau, Kampung Sama | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Fagudu, Falahu, Facei tribes | 2014.

bilnaka / binnaka  ‘steal’/’rob’ | e.g. (1) bin’naka fa.a hia ‘steal something’ (2) pip binnaka ‘stolen money’ | Bahasa Indonesia: mencuri [curi], dicuri, merampok | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

binabo lida  ‘to climb’ | Bahasa Indonesia: naik | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: this Holle list entry is almost certainly a valid form, but it means ‘climb on a mountain’ rather than ‘climb’. In modern sula (or correctly transcribed Sula) the phrase is bena bo lida (‘climb LOC mountain’).

binaka  ‘to steal’ | Bahasa Indonesia: mencuri | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon tribe | 2014.

binkaf  ‘to hold under the arm at side’ | collected on: Mangon, Kampung Kou | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019 | note: Sanana dialect speakers of Fagudu tribe.

bintang  ‘star’ | Bahasa Indonesia: bintang | collected on: Mangon | source: numerous | 2010 | note: loan from Bahasa Indonesia.

bira  ‘rice’ | (cooked and uncooked, husked and unhusked) | Bahasa Indonesia: beras, nasi | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bira ka kol  ‘harvested rice’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: I do not think this Holle list form has a harvest distinction unless perhapse ka kol is ke kol ‘to skin/chaff’, in which case the phrase would be ‘rice to chaff’ and perhaps it was a description of what people were doing rather than a general term for harvested rice as opposed to unharvested rice. In general, Sula does not seem to have many if any examples of change of state words for food products.

bira kan  ‘rice stalk’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bira kol  ‘rice skin’/’chaff’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bira pin  ‘ear of corn’/’tuft of rice’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: this term only means ‘tuft of rice’. Ear of corn is gar pin.

bira’ihi  ‘rice’ | (prepared rice for eating) | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010 | note: literally ‘rice flesh’.

birahi (1)  ‘beautiful’/’cute’/’interesting’ / also (rarely) ‘delicious’ | (scenery, thing, person) | Bahasa Indonesia: cantik, indah, bagus | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: loan or cognate with Indonesian berahi ‘lust’?.

birahi (2)  ‘good (for things)’ | Bahasa Indonesia: bagus | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon tribe | 2014.

birahi (3)  ‘handsome’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

birahi bisa  ‘quite handsome’/’quite beautiful’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010 | note: literally ‘attractive good’.

birahi kadiga  ‘very handsome’/’very beautiful’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010 | note: literally ‘strong attractive’.

bis  ‘full (satisfied)’ | Bahasa Indonesia: kenyang | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bis loi (1)  ‘search’ | (to search for something) | Bahasa Indonesia: mencari [cari] | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bis loi (2)  ‘to choose’ | Bahasa Indonesia: memilih | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Sama | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Facei tribe | 2014.

bis loi senang senang  ‘go out in search of a good time’ | Bahasa Indonesia: mencari [cari] hiburan | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bis noya / bisnoya  ‘story’/’to speak’/’talk’/’say’ | Bahasa Indonesia: cerita | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: the action of talking. Use pak instead when indicating speech ability e.g. to speak a language. See also pisnoya.

bis noya ba’ata  ‘to stutter’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

bis pel  ‘full’/’satisfied’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

bisa (1)  ‘beautiful’ | (scenery, thing, person) | Bahasa Indonesia: cantik, indah | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: literally ‘good’ but frequently used to mean ‘beautiful’.

bisa (2)  ‘good (for things)’ | (general term) | Bahasa Indonesia: bagus | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina, (Sanana) Kampung Umaloya, Kampung Wailau, Kampung Sama | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon, Fagudu, Falahu, Facei tribes | 2014.

bisa kadiga  ‘wonderful’/’best’ | Bahasa Indonesia: bagus sekali | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bisa moya (1)  ‘ugly’ | Bahasa Indonesia: jelek | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: ‘not good’ but frequently used to mean ‘ugly’. see also: bisa.

bisa moya (2)  ‘bad’ | Bahasa Indonesia: jelek | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: literally ‘not’ + ‘good’.

biskuit  ‘cookie’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019 | note: loan.

bisloi  ‘look for’ | Bahasa Indonesia: mencari [cari] | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bisnau  ‘to sew’ | Bahasa Indonesia: menjahit | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

bisnoya  ‘to say’/’to talk’ | Bahasa Indonesia: berkata | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2014.

bisnoya toka hau  ‘to mumble’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

bit (1)  FUTURE AUXILIARY | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

bit (2)  want’/’shall’/’will’/’should’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

bit / bet  ‘want’ | Bahasa Indonesia: mau | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: in practice, lal suka ‘like very much’ is often used instead of bit to indicate a desire. e.g. ak lal suka sui tabak ‘I’d like to smoke’. (pronunciation bet is found in CMD region of Mangon).

bit iki  ‘today’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: see also bet ik.

bit pila  ‘when’ | collected on: Sanana; Mangon, Ulfoa village | source: two to three consultants | 2014 | note: see also bet bila.

bita  ‘night fishing with a lamp’ | collected on: Mangon, Waitulia village | source: two to three consultants | 2014.

bitfua  ‘to spit’ | Bahasa Indonesia: meludah | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), Kampung Capuli | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

bitfua keu  ‘to spit’ | Bahasa Indonesia: meludah | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2014 | note: bua keu is an abbreviation of this older (uncommon) form? Interesting if so, as bua means ‘to fall’. See also sape’i keu.

bitu  ‘day’ | Bahasa Indonesia: hari | collected on: Mangon | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: see also bet, betu.

bitu ika  ‘today’ | collected on: Mangon | source: single consultant | 2014 | note: Mangon form. See also betu ika. For Sanana form, see also bet ik.

bo (1)  LOCATIVE MORPHEME | e.g. ‘at’/’on’/’in’ | Bahasa Indonesia: di | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bo (2)  ‘with’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: I do not recall encountering a meaning of ‘with’. I suspect this Holle list entry was a transcription error for do ‘and’/’with’.

bo (mina)  ‘formerly’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

bo fai  ‘seaward’/’to go downstream’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: directions: lepa ‘up’ and neu ‘down’ correspond to clockwise and counterclockwise depending on the village. Directions: tema ‘inland’ and fai ‘seaward’ are universal in Sula.

bo gehe  ‘back (body)’ | Bahasa Indonesia: punggung | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bo gehi  ‘behind’/’back (body)’ | Bahasa Indonesia: di belakang | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bo heha  ‘underneath’/’below’ | Bahasa Indonesia: di bawah | collected on: Mangon, Capuli village | source: numerous | 2015 | note: there is significant phonetic overlap between o and a in Sula. Many words are produced with one or the other depending on the speaker (regional variation), but all dialects do seem to maintain both o and a as distinct phonemes. Compounding the difficulty in explaining their overlap, some speakers seem to alternate within the same word with no clear contextual trigger. For example a Capuli speaker provided b

o heha ‘underneath’ and b

a neu ‘underneath’. She did not have a reason for the alternation, but said that they had to be that way (other speakers I worked with did not all agree with her). I suspect an elusive phonological condition exists that causes phonetic vowels to overlap or be substituted, but much regional and speaker variation renders the condition unclear. It will take a long-term, onsite study of the language to sufficiently explain the phenomenon.

bo lal  ‘inside’/’in’ | Bahasa Indonesia: dalam | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: see also tuka.

bo lali  ‘in, inside’ | Bahasa Indonesia: [di] dalam | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), Kampung Wai U, Kampung Capuli | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

bo leha  ‘in that place’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

bo mena (1)  ‘next (temporal)’ | Bahasa Indonesia: depan | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: see also bumena for discussion or spacial representation of time.

bo mena (2)  ‘ago’/’before (temporal)’ | Bahasa Indonesia: yang lalu | collected on: Sanana, Mangon village | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: this form was received in elicitation from several consultants. I suspect it is either erroneous, or that it represents a shift in temporal spacial mapping, where part of the community perceives the future to be to the back and part perceives it to be in front.

bo mena (3)  ‘front’ | Bahasa Indonesia: depan | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bo mina  ‘ago’/’before (temporal)’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: I gathered the opposite meaning. Either there has been a semantic change, dialect variation, or one of us is in error.

bo soa  ‘where?’ | Bahasa Indonesia: dimana | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Sama | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Facei tribe | 2014.

bo tuka  ‘in, inside’ | Bahasa Indonesia: [di] dalam | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon tribe | 2014.

bo uhi  ‘night’ | Bahasa Indonesia: malam | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: see also buhi, bauhi.

bo uma lal  ‘indoors’ | Bahasa Indonesia: di dalam | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bo-bo / musik  ‘rhythm’ | Bahasa Indonesia: irama | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

boa  ‘which’ (hia baoa ‘which one’) | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

bob  ‘spoon’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

bobai  ‘boyfriend’/’girlfriend’ | Bahasa Indonesia: pacar | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: a loan from ‘baby’ or ‘寶貝’?.

bobai fina  ‘girlfriend’ | Bahasa Indonesia: pacar perempuan | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bobai maana  ‘boyfriend’ | Bahasa Indonesia: pacar laki-laki | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

boban  ‘harbor’/’port’ | Bahasa Indonesia: pelabuhan | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bobo  ‘roof’ | collected on: Mangon | Collins | 1981.

bobos  ‘taboo’/’forbidden’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2014 | note: definite loan from Ternate boboso.

bobosu  ‘taboo’/’forbidden’ | collected on: Mangon | source: numerous | 2014 | note: definite loan from Ternate boboso.

bobus fat  ‘lazy’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2014.

bodi  ‘boat’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010 | note: possible loan from ‘boat’. See also lota, jonson.

bokatan  ‘breast” | Bahasa Indonesia: i.e. ‘chest’ | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Sama | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Facei tribe | 2014.

bole  ‘permission’/’permit’ | Bahasa Indonesia: ijin | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

boli  ‘to blow from the mouth’/’to blow as the wind’ | Bahasa Indonesia: meniup | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon tribe | 2014.

bomena  ‘in front of’ | Bahasa Indonesia: didapan | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bon gihi fat  ‘to carry (on the back)’ | collected on: Sanana | source: verified from Holle list by two or more speakers unless otherwise noted | c. 1900 | note: archaic.

bon lal  ‘within’ | Bahasa Indonesia: dalam | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bona (1)  ‘to stab, pierce’ | Bahasa Indonesia: menikam | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), Kampung Wai U | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015 | note: this is said to be an overhead stab (‘Psycho’ type).

bona (2)  ‘to fall’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

bona (3)  ‘to throw or shoot a spear’ | collected on: Sanana, Kampung Wailau | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

boni  ‘mouth’ | Bahasa Indonesia: mulut | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon tribe | 2014.

borat  ‘west’ | Bahasa Indonesia: barat | collected on: Sanana, Waibau village | source: numerous | 2015 | note: lack of native words suggests ancient Sula had a non-cardinal direction system.

bosa  ‘to suck’ | e.g. bosa sosa ‘to nurse at the breast’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2014.

bosu (1)  ‘to suck’ | e.g. bosu sosu ‘to nurse at the breast’ | collected on: Mangon | source: three to five consultants | 2014.

bosu (2)  ‘heart’ | collected on: Mangon | source: three to five consultants | 2010.

bosu tabaku  ‘smoke’ | Bahasa Indonesia: merokok | collected on: Mangon, Waitina village | source: Mangon tribe | 2014.

bot  ‘white’ | Bahasa Indonesia: putih | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), all villages | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

bot / boti  ‘white’ | Bahasa Indonesia: putih | collected on: Sanana, Mangon | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bota  ‘cut’/’chop’/’slice’/’hack’ | Bahasa Indonesia: memotong [potong], iris | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

boti  ‘white’ | Bahasa Indonesia: putih | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), all villages | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

botol (1)  ‘bottle’ | Bahasa Indonesia: botol | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: loan.

botol (2)  ‘device for measuring liquids’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: possible loan from ‘bottle’.

botu  ‘cut’ | collected on: Mangon | source: three to five consultants | 2010.

botu peda  ‘fishing with a machete’ | collected on: Mangon, Waitulia village | source: two to three consultants | 2014.

bowai nap  ‘to go upstream’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: this literally means ‘toward the head of the water’.

bowel  ‘to call’ | (e.g. call someone over) | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

boya (1)  ‘tail’ | (animal) | Bahasa Indonesia: ekor | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: compare also (Mangon) mboyu, nboyu, boyu, collected on: Sanana mboya, nboya.

boya (2)  ‘hungry’ | Bahasa Indonesia: lapar | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

boya nahu  ‘long tail’ | Bahasa Indonesia: ekor panjang | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010 | note: compare also (Mangon) mboyu, nboyu, boyu, collected on: Sanana mboya, nboya, boya.

boya yota  ‘short tail’ | Bahasa Indonesia: ekor pendek | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010 | note: compare also (Mangon) mboyu, nboyu, boyu, collected on: Sanana mboya, nboya, boya.

bu  ‘to defecate’ | Bahasa Indonesia: kotoran | collected on: Mangon | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: onomatopoeia?.

bu muka  ‘ahead’ | Bahasa Indonesia: di depan | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bu’a keu  ‘to spit’ | Bahasa Indonesia: meludah | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), Kampung Ulfoa | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

bu’akeu  ‘to spit’ | Bahasa Indonesia: meludah | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), Kampung Wai U | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

bua  ‘fruit’ | Bahasa Indonesia: buah | collected on: Mangon | source: numerous | 2010 | note: loan from Bahasa Indonesia. buah.

bua (1)  ‘to fall’ | Bahasa Indonesia: jatuh | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: see also bakagi.

bua (2)  ‘fruit’ | Bahasa Indonesia: buah | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), Kampung Ulfoa | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

bua keu  ‘to spit’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010 | note: literally ‘fall saliva’. See also bitfua keu, sape’i keu.

bua neu  ‘fall down’ | (e.g. from a tree) | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

buakeu  ‘to spit’ | Bahasa Indonesia: meludah | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), all villages | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

buat  ‘for’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

buba  ‘warm’ | Bahasa Indonesia: panas | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon tribe | 2014.

bubai  ‘lover’/’darling’ | (my dear) | Bahasa Indonesia: berpacaran, kekasih | collected on: Sanana | source: two to three consultants | 2010–2019 | note: see also bobai.

bubai fina  ‘girlfriend’ | Bahasa Indonesia: pacar perempuan | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bubara  a fish that is either the same as or similar to the an island jack (carangoides orthogrammus) | collected on: Mangon, Waitulia village | source: Waitulia fishermen | 2014.

bubir  ‘green’ | e.g. kau hosa bubir ‘the tree leaves are green’ | Bahasa Indonesia: hijau | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: possible loan from Bahasa Indonesia biru ‘blue’.

bufa (1)  ‘to blow with the mouth’ | Bahasa Indonesia: meniup | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), Kampung Ulfoa | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

bufa (2)  ‘to blow as the wind’ | Bahasa Indonesia: bertiup | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Umaloya, Kampung Wailau | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Fagudu, Falahu tribes | 2014.

bufai mai  ‘dust storm’ | Bahasa Indonesia: badai debu | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Umaloya | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Fagudu tribe | 2014.

buha (1)  ‘wind’/’to blow’ | Bahasa Indonesia: angin, bertiup, meniup | collected on: Mangon, Wai U village | source: numerous | 2014.

buha (2)  ‘to blow with the mouth’ | Bahasa Indonesia: meniup | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), all villages | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

buhi  ‘late evening’/’night’ | Bahasa Indonesia: malam | collected on: Mangon, Ulfoa village | source: numerous | 2015 | note: see also bauhi, bo uhi.

bui  ‘jail’ | Bahasa Indonesia: penjara | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

buk  ‘magic book’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: I am unsure the meaning of ‘magic book’, so this Holle list item was too difficult to verify. Certainly books are a relatively recent introduction to Sula. At its most basic, buk does not literally mean ‘magic book’. It means ‘book’.

buku  ‘node in bamboo, sugarcane’ | Bahasa Indonesia: buku | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), Kampung Capuli | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

bul  ‘squeeze’/’wind’/’rol’ | (to wring, as with wet laundry; to wind, as with a rope; to squeeze, as with a lemon) | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

bulela  ‘below’ | Bahasa Indonesia: di bawah | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon tribe | 2014.

bumanga  short-nosed unicornfish/paletail unicornfish (naso brevirostris) | collected on: Mangon, Waitulia village | source: Waitulia fishermen | 2014.

bumena (1)  ‘past’/’past events’ | Bahasa Indonesia: masa lalu | collected on: Sanana | source: two to three consultants | 2010–2019 | note: the overlap between ‘in front of’ and ‘past’, implies that Sula (at least historically) had a conception of time similar to the ancient Greeks, where the future is behind us where we cannot see it, and the past is in front of us where we can see it. Altering this conception could also explain a process of semantic reversal seen in bo mena (which is essentially just another pronunciation of the same term).

bumena (2)  ‘in front of’ | Bahasa Indonesia: didapan | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

bumohi  ‘(fall) behind’ | e.g. walking | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

bun  ‘brow’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

bun taka’u fata  ‘to carry (on the back)’ | collected on: Mangon | source: verified from Holle list by two or more speakers unless otherwise noted | c. 1900 | note: archaic.

bunfoa  ‘eyebrow’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2014.

bunga  ‘flower’ | Bahasa Indonesia: bunga | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010 | note: loan from Bahasa Indonesia.

busu  ‘break down’ | Bahasa Indonesia: rusak | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

busufat  ‘lazy’ | collected on: Mangon | source: numerous | 2014 | note: see also pamalas.

butu  ‘market’ | collected on: Sanana | source: verified from Holle list by two or more speakers unless otherwise noted | c. 1900 | note: Holle postulates this as a loan.

ca  ‘thousand’ | Bahasa Indonesia: ribu | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2014.

ca ga(h)iya  ‘one thousand’ | Bahasa Indonesia: seribu | collected on: Mangon | source: three to five consultants | 2010.

ca ota  ‘one hundred’ | Bahasa Indonesia: seratus | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), Kampung Wai U | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

ca po / ca poa  ‘ten thousand’ | Bahasa Indonesia: sepuluh ribu | source: numerous | 2014 | note: ca po is the Mangon form, ca poa is the Sanana form.

ca-gia  ‘1 thousand’ | collected on: Mangon | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

ca-hia  ‘1 thousand’ | collected on: Sanana | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

ca’ana  ‘trousers’ | Bahasa Indonesia: celana (Loan?) | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2014 | note: see also cahana.

cacing  ‘earthworm’ | Bahasa Indonesia: cacing | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), Kampung Ulfoa, Kampung Capuli | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

caga’u  ‘two thousand’ | collected on: Sanana | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

cagia  ‘one thousand’ | Bahasa Indonesia: seribu | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon tribe | 2014.

caguu  ‘two thousand’ | collected on: Mangon | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

cahana  ‘pants (trousers)’ | e.g. (1) ca’hana nahu ‘long pants’ (2) ca’hana yota ‘shorts’ | Bahasa Indonesia: celana (Loan?) | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

cahana yota  ‘shorts’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

cahia  ‘one thousand’ | Bahasa Indonesia: seribu | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Umaloya, Kampung Sama | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Fagudu, Facei tribes | 2014.

camera  ‘camera’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

cangkul  ‘hoe’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2014.

cap tikus  ‘palm wine moonshine’ | Bahasa Indonesia: cap tikus (regional word) | collected on: Sanana, Mangon, Ternate, Halmahera | source: numerous | 2015.

capalong  ‘top’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

Capuli  ‘Capalulu Village’ | Bahasa Indonesia: Kampung Capalulu | collected on: Mangon, Capuli village | source: numerous | 2015.

cato  ‘a gift’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: traditionally a gift from the sultan.

cerita  ‘history’ | Bahasa Indonesia: sejarah (Loan) | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

choklat  ‘chocolate’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

cilaka  ‘accident’ | Bahasa Indonesia: kecelekaan (Loan) | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

Cina  ‘China’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

cincin  ‘a small parakeet’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

coba  ‘try (attempt)’ | Bahasa Indonesia: mencoba [coba] (Loan) | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

coto  ‘stew’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

cunci  ‘lock’ | Bahasa Indonesia: mengunci (Loan) | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

cup-cup  ‘to kiss’ | Bahasa Indonesia: mencium | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon tribe | 2014.

da (1)  ‘chest (body)’ | Bahasa Indonesia: dada | collected on: Mangon, Ulfoa village | source: numerous | 2014 | note: likely abbreviated loan from Bahasa Indonesia, dada. See also behitan.

da (2)  ‘bye’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

da ahat  ‘last week’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

da ahat hia tuna  ‘the week before last’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019 | note: literally ‘last week’ + ‘one before’.

da bet hia tuna  ‘the day before yesterday’ (yesterday one before) | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

da bol  ‘sick’/’sickness’ | Bahasa Indonesia: penyakit | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

da fasina  ‘last month’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

da sawana  ‘rib (body)’ | Bahasa Indonesia: tulang rusuk | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

da’a  ‘to split as one splits a coconut’ | Bahasa Indonesia: membelah | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), Kampung Wai U | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

da’hi dota  ‘fighting’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010 | note: literally ‘there’s punching’.

da’i  ‘to urinate’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: this form puts into question whether dayu ‘to urinate’ is correct or rather whether it should be daiu.

da’ofa  ‘broad’/’wide’ | collected on: Mangon | source: three to five consultants | 2014.

da’ufon  ‘to hide an item’ | Bahasa Indonesia: bersembunyi | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Umaloya, Kampung Wailau | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Fagudu, Falahu tribes | 2014.

da(h)i moya  ‘shortage’ | Bahasa Indonesia: kekurangan | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

dab  ‘drunk’ | (intoxicated) | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

dab-dab  ‘sauce’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

dab-dab, dabu-dabu  ‘chili sauce’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

dabet  ‘yesterday’ | Bahasa Indonesia: kemarin | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

dabet / damet  ‘yesterday’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

dabet hia tuna  ‘day before yesterday’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2014.

dabol (1)  ‘faint’ | Bahasa Indonesia: pingsan | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

dabol (2)  ‘sprain’ | Bahasa Indonesia: keseleo | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

dad (1)  ‘can’ (ability) / ‘can’ (permission) | e.g. dad nan ‘can swim’ | Bahasa Indonesia: bisa, boleh | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

dad (2)  AUXILIARY | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

dad bal pai  ‘useful’ | Bahasa Indonesia: berguna | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

dad fahia moya  ‘never mind’/’no worries’ | e.g. dau sala mai dad fahia moya ‘don’t worry about putting it in the wrong place’ | Bahasa Indonesia: lupakan | collected on: Sanana, Waibau village | source: numerous | 2014.

dad ine  ‘can’ (permission) | Bahasa Indonesia: boleh | collected on: Mangon, Mangon village | source: single consultant | 2014 | note: this entry was only received once, and I suspect it has a more specific meaning or that ine is an emphatic particle.

dad moya (1)  ‘cannot’ | Bahasa Indonesia: tidak bisa | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: literally ‘can not’.

dad moya (2)  ‘cancel’ | Bahasa Indonesia: membatalkan | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

dad pel  ‘enough’/’already’ | Bahasa Indonesia: cukup, sudah | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

dadab  ‘only’ | Bahasa Indonesia: hanya | location: unknown | source: Umaternate | 2013.

daduba (1)  ‘to float’/’fishing float’ | Bahasa Indonesia: pengapung | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

daduba (2)  ‘to sink’ | e.g. a boat | collected on: Mangon, Ulfoa village | source: numerous | 2015 | note: it is unclear whether this is an auto-antonym, speech error, or possibly a term meaning simply ‘state of buoyancy’.

daet  ‘branch’ | Bahasa Indonesia: dahan | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Umaloya | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Fagudu tribe | 2014.

daeta (yeba)  ‘mince’/’ground meat’ | Bahasa Indonesia: daging cincang | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

daeti  ‘branch’ | Bahasa Indonesia: cabang | collected on: Mangon, Ulfoa village | source: numerous | 2015 | note: branch on the ground. See also sanapet.

dafai  ‘to sneeze’ | Bahasa Indonesia: bersin | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2014.

dafoma  ‘provisions’ | collected on: Mangon | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

dagai  ‘narrow’ | Bahasa Indonesia: sempit | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), Kampung Wai U | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

dagalil  ‘around’/’surrounding’ | collected on: Mangon | source: three to five consultants | 2014.

dagalili, lif dagalili  ‘to turn completely, 180 degrees’ | Bahasa Indonesia: berputar | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon tribe | 2014.

dagama  ‘dream’ | Bahasa Indonesia: mimpi | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

dagana  ‘dream’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | 2014 | note: see also dagama.

dagana/(ba)dagana  ‘to dream’ | Bahasa Indonesia: bermimpi | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Wailau | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Falahu tribe | 2014.

dagat  ‘narrow’ | Bahasa Indonesia: sempit | collected on: Sanana | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

dagat / dagati  ‘tight’/’narrow’ | Bahasa Indonesia: sempit | collected on: Sanana, Mangon | source: numerous | 2010.

dagati  ‘narrow’ | Bahasa Indonesia: sempit | collected on: Mangon all regions | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

dagigi  ‘dig’ | collected on: Mangon | source: three to five consultants | 2010.

daging  ‘meat’/’flesh’ | Bahasa Indonesia: daging | collected on: Mangon | source: numerous | 2010 | note: loan from Bahasa Indonesia.

dagis  ‘painful / sick’/’fever’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

dahafa  ‘wide’ | Bahasa Indonesia: lébar | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Wailau | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Falahu tribe | 2014.

dahi (1)  EXISTENTIAL AUXILIARY | e.g. dahi te dahi moya, dahi panika ik ‘to be or not to be, that is the question’ | Bahasa Indonesia: menjadi | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: this existential morpheme is similar in function to a ‘be’ verb.

dahi (2)  ‘correct, TRUE’ | Bahasa Indonesia: benar | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina, (Sanana) Kampung Umaloya, Kampung Wailau, Kampung Sama | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon, Fagudu, Falahu, Facei tribes | 2014.

dahi / da’i  ‘correct’/’true’/’get’/’to find’/’to be able to’/’to touch’/’to hit’ | Bahasa Indonesia: benar, dapat, mencari, boleh, menyentuh | collected on: Sanana, Mangon | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: at its most basic, dahi is an existential verb, but it is used to cover a broad semantic range. The da’i pronunciation was recorded in Wai U village (CMD region of Mangon). See also pita.

dahi aya  ‘cannon’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

dahi ban  ‘rape’ | Bahasa Indonesia: perkosaan | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

dahi nau  ‘to know, be knowledgeable’ | Bahasa Indonesia: tahu | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon tribe | 2014.

dahi, da’i  ‘to exist’/’to be’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

dahia  ‘durian’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

dahii  explicative word | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

dahina  ‘moment ago, a’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

dahoi  ‘loosely fitting’ | collected on: Sanana | source: verified from Holle list by two or more speakers unless otherwise noted | c. 1900.

dai  ‘there is/there are’ | Bahasa Indonesia: ada | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

dai moya  ‘nothing’ | Bahasa Indonesia: tidak ada | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

dai’oa  ‘to turn’ | Bahasa Indonesia: berputar | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), Kampung Wai U | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

dakhan  ‘to paddle’ | collected on: Sanana | source: verified from Holle list by two or more speakers unless otherwise noted | c. 1900.

daki mayu  ‘to refuse’ | collected on: Mangon | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

dakoku (1)  a fish that is either the same as or similar to the blackspot sergeant (abudefdul sordidus) | collected on: Mangon, Waitulia village | source: Waitulia fishermen | 2014.

dakoku (2)  a fish that is either the same as or similar to the flame anglefish (loriculus) | collected on: Mangon, Mangon village | source: Mangon tribal members who are (non-fishermen) | 2014.

daku lanu  ‘to paddle’ | collected on: Mangon | source: verified from Holle list by two or more speakers unless otherwise noted | c. 1900.

dalena  ‘wide’/’loose’ | Bahasa Indonesia: lebar, longgar | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

dalina  ‘wide’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2014 | note: see also dalena.

damera  ‘jaw’ | Bahasa Indonesia: rahang | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

damet  ‘yesterday’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

damit  ‘yesterday’ | collected on: Sanana | source: two to three consultants | 2014 | note: see also damet.

damitu  ‘day before yesterday’ | collected on: Mangon | source: three to five consultants | 2014.

damu  ‘and’ | Bahasa Indonesia: dan | collected on: Mangon | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

dan  ‘and’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

dan sohangi  ‘to pawn’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

dana (1)  ‘to pay’/’a fine’ | Bahasa Indonesia: membayar [bayar] | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: like in German where ‘lend’ and ‘borrow’ are the same word, dana covers both a fine and the action of paying the fine.

dana (2)  ‘to drip’ | Bahasa Indonesia: menetes | collected on: Mangon, Waitulia village | source: numerous | 2014.

dana muamua  ‘cash’ | Bahasa Indonesia: kontan | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

dana pakiki  ‘cash’ | Bahasa Indonesia: kontan | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

danamatapia  ‘bribe’ | Bahasa Indonesia: menyogok | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

danas  ‘pineapple’ | Bahasa Indonesia: nanas | collected on: Sanana, Waibau village | source: numerous | 2015 | note: loan. See also nanas.

danau  ‘lake’ | Bahasa Indonesia: danau | collected on: Mangon | source: numerous | 2010 | note: loan from Bahasa Indonesia.

daneta  ‘to cut, hack’ | Bahasa Indonesia: menetak | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Sama | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Facei tribe | 2014.

dang  ‘rice-kettle (copper)’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: Holle postulates this as a Ternate loan.

danika  ‘ask (a ques)’/’to question’ | Bahasa Indonesia: bertanya [tanya] | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

danu bu api uki  ‘to roast (in the coals)’ | collected on: Mangon | source: two to three consultants | 2014 | note: Mangon form. For Sanana form, see also dona bo ap ok.

dapuya  ‘less’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

dasa wana  ‘rib’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

dasoi  ‘loosely fitting’ | collected on: Mangon | source: verified from Holle list by two or more speakers unless otherwise noted | c. 1900.

dau  ‘put’/’place’/’set’ | e.g. domino on table | Bahasa Indonesia: taru, simpan | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: mimimal pair with nau.

dau fon / da’ufon  ‘to hide’ | (hide an item) | Bahasa Indonesia: sembunyi | collected on: Sanana, Malbufa village; Mangon, Wai U village | source: numerous | 2014, 2015 | note: see also baifon, fongi, dori fon.

dau kub  ‘organize’ | Bahasa Indonesia: mengatur [atur] | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

dau sala  ‘to put something in the wrong place’ | Bahasa Indonesia: untuk meletakkan sesuatu di tempat yang salah | collected on: Sanana, Waibau village | source: single consultant | 2014.

daufongi  ‘to hide an item’ | Bahasa Indonesia: bersembunyi | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon tribe | 2014.

daupa  ‘blocked’ | Bahasa Indonesia: diblokir | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

dawika (1)  ‘sunny’ | Bahasa Indonesia: cerah | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

dawika (2)  ‘future’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

dawika (3)  ‘tomorrow’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

dayas  ‘broad’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

dayu (1)  ‘boat paddle’/’to paddle’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

dayu (2)  ‘to pull’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2014.

dayu (3)  ‘to urinate’ | e.g. kera i-dayu pita yai ‘the monkey peed on (your) leg’ | Bahasa Indonesia: kencing | collected on: Mangon, Waitulia village | source: numerous | 2014.

de lani  ‘near’ | Bahasa Indonesia: dekat | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon tribe | 2014.

de sibo  ‘where?’ | Bahasa Indonesia: dimana | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon tribe | 2014.

de yau  ‘far’ | Bahasa Indonesia: jauh | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon tribe | 2014.

ded pon  ‘back’ | Bahasa Indonesia: punggung | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Sama | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Facei tribe | 2014.

degis  ‘fever’ | Bahasa Indonesia: demam | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

deha (1)  ‘leave’/’left’ | Bahasa Indonesia: ketinggalan | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

deha (2)  ‘live somewhere’/’stay or remain’ | Bahasa Indonesia: tinggal | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

deha lepa  ‘above’ | Bahasa Indonesia: [di] atas | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Sama | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Facei tribe | 2014.

deha ne’u  ‘below’ | Bahasa Indonesia: di bawah | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Sama | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Facei tribe | 2014.

deha sahoa / deha so  ‘where’ | Bahasa Indonesia: dimana | collected on: Mangon, Ulfoa village; Mangon, Wai U village | source: numerous | 2014 | note: see also sahoa, sa’oa, soa.

deha saik  ‘here’ | Bahasa Indonesia: di sini | collected on: Mangon, Ulfoa village | source: numerous | 2014 | note: see also siku, isuka, saik, saiki, saiya, sit iki.

dehaat  ‘forgotten’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

demet  ‘before’ | Bahasa Indonesia: sebelum | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

dena  ‘aboard’ | e.g. dena bo lota lal ‘aboard a ship’ | Bahasa Indonesia: atas | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

dena / ewa  ‘flow’ | Bahasa Indonesia: mengalir | collected on: Mangon, Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

deneka  ‘fair’ | Bahasa Indonesia: wajar | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

deneka moya  ‘unfair’ | Bahasa Indonesia: tidak wajar | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

Desember  ‘December’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

despat  ‘break (bone)’ | Bahasa Indonesia: patah | collected on: Sanana | source: Duwila; Fagudu Tribe, Waibao village | 2010–2019.

det  ‘to cut, to hack’ | Bahasa Indonesia: memotong | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), Kampung Ulfoa, Kampung Wai U | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

det / deti  ‘to cut’/’to hack’/’karate chop’ | Bahasa Indonesia: memotong | collected on: Sanana, Mangon | source: numerous | 2010, 2014.

deti  ‘to cut, to hack’ | Bahasa Indonesia: memotong | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), all villages | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

dewika  ‘tomorrow’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2014 | note: see also hai dewika, hai dawika.

di  ‘and’ | Bahasa Indonesia: dan | collected on: Mangon | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

di hiya moya  ‘none’ | Bahasa Indonesia: tidak satu pun | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

di moya pel  ‘end’ | Bahasa Indonesia: akhir | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

diangku  ‘beard’ | collected on: Mangon | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

dika  ‘to open, uncover’ | Bahasa Indonesia: membuka | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), Kampung Capuli | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

dinga  ‘moment ago, a’ | collected on: Mangon | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

dini fa  ‘wealthy’ | collected on: Mangon | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

dit (1)  ‘real’/’actual’ | e.g. baba dit ‘real father’ | Bahasa Indonesia: nyata | collected on: Sanana, Waibau village | source: numerous | 2015.

dit (2)  REFLEXIVE | (‘self’) | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

do (1)  ‘and’/’also’ | Bahasa Indonesia: antara, juga, dan | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

do (2)  ‘between’ | Bahasa Indonesia: dan | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), all villages | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

do (3)  ‘with’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

do (4)  ‘Sleepy’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

do.a  ‘Sleepy’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

dodok  ‘bridge’ | Bahasa Indonesia: jembatan | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

dodoku / dodok  ‘bridge’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2014.

dof  ‘floor’ | e.g. dof tina ‘upon the floor’ | Bahasa Indonesia: lantai | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

dog (1)  ‘couch’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: sofas are uncommon in mot parts of Sula today. It is difficult to imagine they were common enough to have a term a hundred years ago when the Holle list was compiled.

dog (2)  ‘to grow’ | Bahasa Indonesia: tumbuh | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), Kampung Ulfoa, Kampung Wai U | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

dog / dogi  ‘to grow’ | Bahasa Indonesia: tumbuh | collected on: Sanana, Mangon | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

dogi  ‘to grow’ | Bahasa Indonesia: tumbuh | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), all villages | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

dohi nana  ‘cannon’ | collected on: Mangon | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

doi  ‘to puncture’/’to stab’/’pierce’ | (e.g. fish) | Bahasa Indonesia: tusuk | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon tribe | 2014.

dok  ‘gift’/’to give’ | Bahasa Indonesia: hadiah, kasih | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

dok basa  ‘complimentary (free)’ | Bahasa Indonesia: gratis | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

dok bihu  ‘lend’ | Bahasa Indonesia: beri / kasih pulang | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

dok moya  ‘to refuse’ | (refuse to take something) | Bahasa Indonesia: menolak | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2014.

dok tea maha  ‘feed’ | Bahasa Indonesia: memberi makanan | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

dok wai  ‘to fetch water’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2014 | note: literally ‘bring water’.

doki  ‘to give’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010 | note: see also dok.

dokter  ‘doctor’ | (modern medicine) | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010 | note: loan.

dol (1)  ‘bring’ | Bahasa Indonesia: membawa | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

dol (2)  ‘deliver’ | Bahasa Indonesia: membawa | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

dol (3)  ‘invite’ | Bahasa Indonesia: ajak | location: unknown | source: Umaternate | 2013.

dol as  ‘to hunt’ | Bahasa Indonesia: berburu | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Umaloya | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Fagudu tribe | 2014 | note: literally ‘bring dog’.

doma  a fish that is either the same as or similar to the Heller’s barracuda (sphyraena helleri) | collected on: Mangon, Waitulia village | source: Waitulia fishermen | 2014.

don falihi / don fa / donin falihi  ‘valuable’/’wealthy’/’quality’ | Bahasa Indonesia: berharga | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

dona  ‘to burn’/’burnt’ | Bahasa Indonesia: membakar | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: intransitive. Possibly cognate with dena ‘torch’ from Hindi. See also donu, sara.

dona / (ap) dona  ‘to burn’ | (general) | Bahasa Indonesia: membakar | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Umaloya | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Fagudu tribe | 2014.

dona banke  ‘cremation’ | Bahasa Indonesia: pembakaran mayat | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

dona bo ap ok  ‘to roast (in the coals)’ | collected on: Sanana | source: two to three consultants | 2014 | note: Sanana form. For Mangon form, see also danu bu api uki.

donga (1)  ‘muscle’ | Bahasa Indonesia: otot | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

donga (2)  ‘node in bamboo, sugarcane’ | Bahasa Indonesia: buku | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), all villages | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

donis  ‘half’ | source: numerous | 2014.

donnis  ‘half’ note: see also dunnis | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

donu  ‘to burn’ | collected on: Mangon | source: numerous | 2010 | note: intransitive. Possibly cognate with dena ‘torch’ from Hindi. See also dona, sara.

donu, batonu  ‘to burn’ | Bahasa Indonesia: membakar | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon tribe | 2014.

dor  ‘cockroach’ | Bahasa Indonesia: kecoa | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

dori fon  ‘to hide’ | (something) | Bahasa Indonesia: sembunyi | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: likely archaic. It is currently reported as daufon and baifon. See also baifon, fongi, dau fon.

dos  ‘box’/’container’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

dosa [fa=’a besa]  ‘sin’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

dota (1)  ‘to grow’ | Bahasa Indonesia: tumbuh | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), Kampung Ulfoa, Kampung Capuli | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

dota (2)  ‘to hit’/’to pound’/’beat’/’to strike’ | Bahasa Indonesia: memukul | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Umaloya, Kampung Wailau | source: numerous | 2010-2019.

dota / dotu  ‘hit’/’fight’/’pound’/’to punch’ | Bahasa Indonesia: memukul, memalu | collected on: Sanana, Mangon | source: numerous | 2010-2019.

dota-tota  ‘keep hitting’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

dota, mana tota  ‘to pound’ | Bahasa Indonesia: | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Wailau | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Falahu tribe | 2014.

dotu  ‘to hit’/’to pound’/’beat’/’to strike’ | Bahasa Indonesia: memukul | collected on: Mangon | source: numerous | 2010 | note: see also dota.

dotu pamasi  ‘to pound, beat rice’ | Bahasa Indonesia: menumbuk | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon tribe | 2014.

down nonu  ‘lie’ | collected on: Mangon | source: three to five consultants | 2010.

du  ‘and’ | Bahasa Indonesia: dan | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Wailau | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Falahu tribe | 2014.

du, di  ‘and’ | Bahasa Indonesia: dan | collected on: Sanana, Mangon | source: numerous | 2010-2019 | note: see also do.

dua (1)  ‘smithy’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: Holle postulates this as a Ternate loan.

dua (2)  ‘again’ | Bahasa Indonesia: lagi | location: unknown | source: Umaternate | 2013.

dua (3)  ‘to push’ | Bahasa Indonesia: mendorong [dorong] | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

dua / duadua  ‘guess’ | Bahasa Indonesia: menerka [terka] | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

dud (tabak)  ‘roll’/’fold’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

dud tabak  ‘roll a cigarette’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

dudes  ‘snare’/’to snare’ | collected on: Sanana, Kampung Wailau | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

duf (1)  ‘hole’ | e.g. duf til ‘pierced ear’ (lit. ‘ear hole’) | collected on: Mangon, Ulfoa village | source: numerous | 2015 | note: see also tuf.

duf (2)  ‘to stab’ | collected on: Sanana | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

duk  ‘to come’/’to arrive’ | Bahasa Indonesia: datang, kedatangan | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

duk / selamat  ‘welcome’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

duki  ‘come’ | collected on: Mangon | source: three to five consultants | 2010.

duki (1)  ‘until’/’in’ (distance) | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: this Holle entry is a likely error, as duki means ‘to come’.

duki (2)  ‘to come’ | Bahasa Indonesia: datang | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), all villages | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

dundu bo ngapu  ‘to carry (on the head)’ | collected on: Mangon | source: verified from Holle list by two or more speakers unless otherwise noted | c. 1900 | note: see also Sanana form dur bo nap.

dunia  ‘earth (globe)’/’nature’/’land’ | Bahasa Indonesia: dunia, alam | collected on: Mangon | source: numerous | 2010 | note: loan from Bahasa Indonesia.

dunis  ‘half’ | source: numerous | 2014.

dunnis  ‘half’ note: see also donnis | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

dunya tiamat  ‘natural disaster’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

dur bo nap  ‘to carry (on the head)’ | collected on: Sanana | source: verified from Holle list by two or more speakers unless otherwise noted | c. 1900 | note: see also Sanana form dundu bongapu.

dutu  ‘to cover something’ | (e.g. a container) | Bahasa Indonesia: menutupi | collected on: Mangon, Waitulia village | source: single consultant | 2014 | note: this entry is uncertain. It might not be Sula.

e (1)  ‘that’ (e.g. gaika e ‘like that’) | Bahasa Indonesia: itu | location: unknown | source: Umaternate | 2013.

e (2)  EMPHATIC PARTICLE | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

ea mata sup  ‘exit’ | Bahasa Indonesia: pintu keluar | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

eamata  ‘door’ | Bahasa Indonesia: pintu | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

eb  ‘very’/’many’/’much’/’a lot’ | Bahasa Indonesia: sangat, banyak | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

eb gahoa  ‘how many/much’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

eb gaoa  ‘how many/much’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

eb goa  ‘how many/much’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

eb kim  ‘they’ | Bahasa Indonesia: meréka | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Sama | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Facei tribe | 2014.

eb talal  ‘an extraordinary amount’ | Bahasa Indonesia: banyak sekali | collected on: Sanana, Malbufa village | source: numerous | 2015 | note: see also eb, ib, ibu, foloi, kadiga, ta lal.

ebat  ‘great (fantastic)’ | Bahasa Indonesia: jago | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

ebu  ‘many’ | collected on: Mangon | source: three to five consultants | 2010.

ek  ‘neck’ | Bahasa Indonesia: léhér | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), Kampung Ulfoa | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

ek (waka)  ‘neck’ | Bahasa Indonesia: léhér | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), Kampung Wai U | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

ek lawa  ‘neck’ | Bahasa Indonesia: léhér | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), Kampung Ulfoa | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

eka (1)  ‘garbage’ | Bahasa Indonesia: sampah | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

eka (2)  ‘grass’ | Bahasa Indonesia: rumput | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), all villages | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

eki  ‘neck’ | Bahasa Indonesia: léhér | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), all villages | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

eki (wai)  ‘neck’ | Bahasa Indonesia: léhér | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon tribe | 2014.

ekilawa  ‘neck’ | collected on: Mangon | source: three to five consultants | 2010.

el  ‘areca catechu Linn.’ | (beetlenut) | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010 | note: Sanana form. For Mangon form, see also elu.

elu  ‘areca catechu Linn.’ | (beetlenut) | collected on: Mangon | source: numerous | 2014 | note: Mangon form. For Sanana form, see also el.

em  ‘chicken coop’ | Bahasa Indonesia: kandang ayam | collected on: Sanana | source: single consultant | 2014.

en’em  ‘nest’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

ena ena  ‘oyster’ | Bahasa Indonesia: tiram | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

ence  ‘half, a’ | collected on: Mangon | source: verified from Holle list by two or more speakers unless otherwise noted | c. 1900.

ence piu  ‘quarter, a’ | collected on: Mangon | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

enci  ‘half, a’ | collected on: Mangon | source: verified from Holle list by two or more speakers unless otherwise noted | c. 1900.

enci piu  ‘quarter, a’ | collected on: Mangon | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

engka  ‘grass or grass mats on the floor of a home’ | Bahasa Indonesia: rumput | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon tribe | 2014.

er  ‘to shake’ | Bahasa Indonesia: mengguncang | collected on: Sanana | source: single consultant | 2014.

es  ‘ice’ | collected on: Mangon | source: three to five consultants | 2010.

es (1)  ‘to rub’ | Bahasa Indonesia: menggosok | collected on: Sanana | source: single consultant | 2014.

es (2)  ‘cold drink’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019 | note: likely loan from Dutch ijs.

etwama  ‘to sniff, smell’ | Bahasa Indonesia: menghiru | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Sama | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Facei tribe | 2014.

ewa  ‘flow’/’river’ | Bahasa Indonesia: sungai | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

ewa, wai ewa  ‘to flow’ | Bahasa Indonesia: mengalir | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina, (Sanana) Kampung Umaloya, Kampung Wailau | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon, Fagudu, Falahu tribes | 2010-2019.

eya  ‘big’ | Bahasa Indonesia: besar | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Wailau | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Falahu tribe | 2014.

eya mata  ‘door’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2014.

fa bama  ‘merchandise’ | collected on: Mangon | source: verified from Holle list by two or more speakers unless otherwise noted | c. 1900.

fa bau maneha  ‘tool’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010 | note: ‘thing’ + ‘repair’.

fa damoha  ‘next’ | Bahasa Indonesia: yang berikutnya | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

fa kau  ‘wall (inside)’ | Bahasa Indonesia: dinding | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

fa munara sam  ‘weft’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

fa oki  ‘woods’ | (small) | Bahasa Indonesia: hutan | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Wailau | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Falahu tribe | 2014.

fa pamaha  ‘items for sale’ | collected on: Sanana | source: verified from Holle list by two or more speakers unless otherwise noted | c. 1900.

fa pasia ban doa  ‘incantation’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

fa’a / fa’a mehi  ‘goods’/’things’ | Bahasa Indonesia: barang | collected on: Mangon, Ulfoa village | source: numerous | 2015 | note: see also tuf.

fa’a bumena  ‘a relic’ | Bahasa Indonesia: peninggalan | collected on: Sanana | source: two to three consultants | 2010–2019 | note: literally ‘past thing’.

fa’a oki  ‘woods/forest’ | collected on: Mangon, CMD villages | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

fa’a sil  ‘plant’/’vegetation’ | collected on: Sanana | source: single consultant | 2014 | note: see also fasel.

fa’a tani  ‘vegetation’ | collected on: Mangon | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: this Holle entry could be an error as the morphemes mean ‘farmer thing’ and farmer is an Indonesian loan.

fa’afa  ‘mouse’ | collected on: Mangon | source: three to five consultants | 2010.

fa’angapu  ‘mask’ | collected on: Mangon | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: I think this Holle form was an elicitation misunderstanding. It literally means ‘head thing’ and is not exclusive to masks.

fa’apia  ‘virtue’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: this Holle form could be an error as the morphemes can mean ‘something about a person’, indicating that the consultant might not have understood what concept was being described.

fa’ara  ‘sky’ | Bahasa Indonesia: langit | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), Kampung Capuli | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

fa’ata  ‘heavy’ | Bahasa Indonesia: berat | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010 | note: see also fayata.

fa’ko  ‘dog’ | Bahasa Indonesia: anjing | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon tribe | 2014.

fa’oi  ‘price’ | collected on: Mangon | source: two to three consultants | 2010 | note: see also falihi.

fa’ok  ‘woods/forest’ | Bahasa Indonesia: hutan | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Umaloya | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Fagudu tribe | 2014.

fa’oki  ‘woods/forest’ | Bahasa Indonesia: hutan | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon tribe | 2014.

faa (1)  ‘shop’ | Bahasa Indonesia: belanja | collected on: Sanana | source: single speaker (Fagudu tribe) | 2010–2019.

faa (2)  ‘thing’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

faa hia  ‘something’ | Bahasa Indonesia: sesuatu | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

faa makaa  ‘jewellery’ | Bahasa Indonesia: perhiasan | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

faa manil  ‘vinegar’ | Bahasa Indonesia: cuka | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

faa mehi  ‘tool’ | Bahasa Indonesia: alat | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

faa ok / fa’a oki  ‘forest’ | Bahasa Indonesia: hutan | collected on: Sanana; Mangon, Waitina village | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

faadab  ‘dangerous’ | Bahasa Indonesia: berbahaya | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

faadit  ‘private’ | Bahasa Indonesia: pribadi | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

faata  ‘heavy (weight)’ | Bahasa Indonesia: berat | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

fabumena mena  ‘relic’/’ancient thing’ | Bahasa Indonesia: kuno | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

faf  ‘pig’ | (wild or domesticated) | Bahasa Indonesia: babi | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

faf ihi  ‘pork’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

fafa  ‘rat’ | Bahasa Indonesia: tikus | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon tribe | 2014.

fafi  ‘pig’ | collected on: Mangon | source: numerous | 2010-2019 | note: see faf.

fafoi  ‘dress’/’fabric’ | Bahasa Indonesia: baju, kain | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

fah mua mua  ‘everything’ | Bahasa Indonesia: segala sesuatu | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

Fahahu / Fahu  ‘Falahu tribe’ | Bahasa Indonesia: Suku Falahu | collected on: Sanana, Umahoya village | Source: Source: Fagudu tribe | 2014 | note: l > h > Ø is an advanced sound change in Umaloya. Only the h is optionally deleted in uma(h)oya but entire ha syllable can be dropped in fa(ha)hu. Could this be because there is a lexical item, suha blocking it? Also, kalau is only kalo and never *kaho, *kao, or *ka. Is this because it is a loan word, or because it is not a medial syllable? See also Umahoya, kalo, Sua, Saloa, Sahoa.

fahapa (para)  ‘anything’ | Bahasa Indonesia: apa saja | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

fahira  ‘lost’ | (object) | Bahasa Indonesia: kehilangan | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

fai  ‘seaward direction’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: the direction toward the sea/seacoast when standing inland.

faiao fat  ‘stomach’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

fakea  ‘lime (fruit)’ | Bahasa Indonesia: kapur | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

fakeya  ‘lime’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2014 | note: see also fakea.

fakia  ‘lime’ | collected on: Mangon | source: two to three consultants | 2014 | note: see also fakea.

fako  ‘dog’ | Bahasa Indonesia: anjing | collected on: Mangon | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: see also as.

fako sipa  ‘to bark’ | collected on: Mangon | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: see also as li.

fal  ‘rainbow’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

Falahu  name of tribe and village | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

falai  ‘drunk’ | (intoxicated) | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

falihi  ‘cost (thing)’/’price (goods)’ | e.g. falihi eb goa ‘how much does it cost’? CMD dialect | Bahasa Indonesia: harga | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

falihi mura  ‘cheap (price)’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

faloi  ‘more’/’too’/’most’ | Bahasa Indonesia: lebih, terlalu | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

falom  ‘slave’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

famaka  ‘gold’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: see also mas.

famehi / fame  ‘tools’/’implements’/’cutlery’ | Bahasa Indonesia: alat-alat | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

famehi bumena mena  ‘old cutlery’ | Bahasa Indonesia: kuno | collected on: Sanana | source: Duwila; Fagudu Tribe, Waibao village | 2010–2019 | note: I elicited for ‘ancient’, but this seems to mean ‘old cutlery’. I think the consultant was saying that the cutlery on the table was old. See also fabumena mena ‘relic’.

fanana  ‘small child’ | Bahasa Indonesia: anak kecil | collected on: Sanana, Waibau village | source: three to five consultants | 2014.

fangara  ‘cloud’/’fog’/’foggy’ | Bahasa Indonesia: awan, berkabut | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: see also fengara.

fanini  ‘big’/’fat’ | Bahasa Indonesia: gemuk | collected on: Mangon | source: three to five consultants | 2010.

fantui  ‘star’ | Bahasa Indonesia: bintang | collected on: (Mangon) Kampung Waitina | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Mangon tribe | 2014.

faok / faoki  ‘forest’ | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

faoki  ‘woods’/’forest’ | collected on: Mangon | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

fapa sia  ‘spirit’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

fasel  ‘plant’ | Bahasa Indonesia: tumbuhan | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

fasina (1)  ‘moon’ | Bahasa Indonesia: bulan | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

fasina (2)  ‘month’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

fasina bena  ‘rising moon’ | Bahasa Indonesia: bulan terbit | collected on: Mangon, Waitina village | source: Mangon tribe | 2014.

fasina gatel  ‘three months from now’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

fasina hia tuna  ‘the month before last’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

fasina pihu  ‘next month’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

fasina’ik  ‘this month’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

fat (1)  ‘rock’/’stone’ | Bahasa Indonesia: batu | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010 | note: see also fatu.

fat (2)  ‘pit of fruit’/’seed’ | Bahasa Indonesia: batu | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), all villages | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

fat poa  ‘ten’ | Bahasa Indonesia: sepuluh | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), Kampung Ulfoa | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

fata  ‘wife’/’homemaker’ | Bahasa Indonesia: isteri, ibu rumah tangga | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

fatel  ‘testicals’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

fathia  ‘piece of~’ | collected on: Sanana | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

fatu  ‘rock’/’stone’/’pit’/’stone of fruit’/’seed’ | Bahasa Indonesia: batu | collected on: Mangon | source: three to five consultants | 2010 | note: see also fat.

fatuf  ‘cave’ | Bahasa Indonesia: gua | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

fatugia  ‘piece of~’ | collected on: Mangon | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

fatui  ‘star, planet’ | Bahasa Indonesia: bintang | collected on: Sanana, Mangon | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: see also fentui.

fatui dai  ‘shooting starr’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

fau  ‘hit’ | collected on: Mangon | source: three to five consultants | 2010.

faumata  ‘kill’ | collected on: Mangon | source: three to five consultants | 2010.

fayata  ‘heavy’ | Bahasa Indonesia: berat | collected on: Mangon | source: two to three consultants | 2010 | note: see also fa’ata.

fe’i  ‘smoke’ | Bahasa Indonesia: asap | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Umaloya | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Fagudu tribe | 2014.

fe’u  ‘new’ | Bahasa Indonesia: baru | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Sama | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Facei tribe | 2014.

fea  ‘gum (mouth)’ | Bahasa Indonesia: gusi | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

Februari  ‘February’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

fei  ‘smoke’ | Bahasa Indonesia: asap | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

felbok  ‘cliff’ | Bahasa Indonesia: tebing | collected on: Sanana | source: Duwila; Fagudu Tribe, Waibao village | 2010–2019.

fengara  ‘cloud’/’fog’/’foggy’ | Bahasa Indonesia: awan, berkabut | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: see also fangara.

fengara fengara  ‘cloudy’ | Bahasa Indonesia: berawan | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

fenin  ‘large’ | Bahasa Indonesia: besar | collected on: Sanana | source: two to three consultants | 2010-2019 | note: this word was encountered in Malbufa.

fentui  ‘star’ | Bahasa Indonesia: bintang | collected on: Mangon | source: numerous | 2010 | note: see also fatui.

feta  ‘sister’ | collected on: Mangon | Collins | 1981.

feu (1)  ‘first (in time)’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: the ordinal form for the number one is pakahia. I suspect this Holle list entry is erroneous.

feu (2)  ‘new’/’just (recently)’/’to begin’ | Bahasa Indonesia: baru | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

fia  ‘banana’ | collected on: Mangon | source: three to five consultants | 2010.

fia hosa  ‘banana leaf’ | Bahasa Indonesia: daun pisang | collected on: Sanana | source: Duwila; Fagudu Tribe, Waibao village | 2015.

fia ihi  ‘banana meat’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

fia jarum  ‘small banana cultivar’ | collected on: Mangon, Capuli village | source: two to three consultants | 2015.

fia kaeda  ‘large banana cultivar’ | collected on: Mangon, Capuli village | source: two to three consultants | 2015.

fia kau  ‘banana tree’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

fia manafu  ‘kind of banana’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2014.

fia po  ‘banana inflorescence’ | Bahasa Indonesia: jantung pisang | collected on: Mangon, Waitulia village | source: numerous | 2014.

fia poha  ‘banana inflorescence’ | Bahasa Indonesia: jantung pisang | collected on: Mangon, Capuli village | source: numerous | 2015.

fia pohu  ‘banana inflorescence’ | Bahasa Indonesia: jantung pisang | collected on: Mangon | source: numerous | 2015.

fia raja  ‘large banana cultivar’ | collected on: Mangon, Capuli village | source: two to three consultants | 2015.

fia wata  ‘kind of banana’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2014.

fia-sinanga  ‘fried banana’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019 | note: a regional staple food.

fif  ‘boil’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: see also ngan.

filut [u]  ‘flute’ | collected on: Sanana | source: verified from Holle list by two or more speakers unless otherwise noted | c. 1900 | note: loan from Dutch ‘fluit’?.

fin  ‘seed’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

fina  ‘woman’/’female’ | (human or animal) | Bahasa Indonesia: perempuan | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

fina koa / fina ko  ‘virginity’/’girl’/’single woman’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2014.

fina muya / finga muya  ‘fly (insect)’ | Bahasa Indonesia: lalat | collected on: Sanana | source: Duwila; Fagudu Tribe, Waibao village | 2010–2019 | note: The Sanana form is fina muya and finga muya is the Mangon form.

finot  ‘shrew’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2014.

fo  ‘hair’/’feather’ | collected on: Mangon | source: numerous | 2010 | note: this is an abreviated form of foa, the nonspecific form for ‘hair’, ‘fur’, and ‘feathers’. See also manfoa.

fo’aha yai  ‘anklet’ | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

fo’loi  ‘more’ | e.g. (1) yao fo’loi ‘longer’, (2) mina fo’loi ‘sweeter’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010 | note: comparative morpheme.

fo’oha  ‘fruit’ | Bahasa Indonesia: buah | collected on: Sanana | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: see also fua.

foː

  ‘hair, feather’ | collected on: Mangon | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

foa  ‘body hair’/’feather’ | (human and animal) | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010 | note: this is the nonspecific form for ‘hair’, ‘fur’, and ‘feathers’. See also manfoa, fo.

fofa  ‘plaited rattan fish trap’ | (for catching fish and eels) | Bahasa Indonesia: keranjang memancing bambu | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2014 | note: see also fofu.

fofu  ‘plaited rattan fish trap’ | (for catching fish and eels) | Bahasa Indonesia: keranjang memancing bambu | collected on: Mangon, Waitulia village | source: numerous | 2014 | note: see also fofa.

foka (1)  ‘corner’ | Bahasa Indonesia: sudut | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

foka (2)  ‘node in bamboo, sugarcane’ | Bahasa Indonesia: buku | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), Kampung Ulfoa | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

foka (3)  ‘joint in finger’ | collected on: Sanana | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

foka nana  ‘hill’ | collected on: Mangon | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: this Holle entry is likely correct, but the meaning of foka is unclear. It is also in the term for ‘skull’ nap foka (‘head’ + ‘?’). Alone foka is also given as ‘corner’.

foku (1)  ‘ankle’ | collected on: Mangon | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: I suspect this is erroneous, as foku is a general term for ‘joint’.

foku (2)  ‘mountain’ | collected on: Mangon | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900 | note: this Holle list entry is almost certainly false. It is possible that someone was pointing at a mountain pass between peaks and that might be referred to as a ‘joint’, foku, between ‘mountains’, lida.

foku (3)  ‘node in bamboo, sugarcane’ | collected on: Mangon | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

foku (4)  ‘joint in finger’ | collected on: Mangon | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

foku / foka  ‘joint’ | (general term covering body joints and other joints such as the connection between bamboo segments) | collected on: Mangon, Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019 | note: foku is the Mangon form. The Sanana form is foka.

foloi (1)  ‘pass (go by)’ | Bahasa Indonesia: melewatkan, lewat | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

foloi (2)  ‘much’ | Bahasa Indonesia: sangat | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

fongi  ‘to hide’ | Bahasa Indonesia: sembunyi | collected on: Mangon | source: numerous | 2014 | note: see also baifon, dori fon, dau fon.

fonu, pin sanisi  ‘turtle’ | collected on: Mangon | source: entry from Holle List; unable to verify | c. 1900.

for  ‘fork’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010.

foro  ‘bracelet’ | collected on: Mangon | source: verified from Holle list by two or more speakers unless otherwise noted | c. 1900.

fota (1)  ‘decide’ | Bahasa Indonesia: memutus | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

fota (2)  ‘to tear’ | source: natural speech samples. | 2010-2019.

foya  ‘crocodile’ | collected on: Mangon | source: three to five consultants | 2014.

fua (1)  ‘fruit’ | Bahasa Indonesia: buah | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

fua (2)  ‘feathers’ | Bahasa Indonesia: bulu | collected on: Mangon (CMD region), Kampung Capuli | source: targeted elicitations for CMD dialect description. Reference Appendix data for number of consultants producing this form. | 2015.

fua hia, kau fua hia  ‘a piece of fruit’ | Bahasa Indonesia: sebiji buah | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Sama | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Facei tribe | 2014.

fua kol / fuang kol  ‘rind’/’peel’/’skin’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010 | note: Sanana forms. For Mangon form, see also nceli ngkoli. (fuang kol is archaic).

fua yakis / bua yakis / boyakis  ‘cashew fruit’ | Bahasa Indonesia: jambu menteh | collected on: Mangon, Capuli village and Sanana, Malbufa village | source: numerous | 2015 | note: bua yakis was recorded in Malbufa. boyakis was recorded on Eastern Sanana. For cashew nut meat, see also yakis ihi. image 2199.

fua, kau fua  ‘fruit’ | Bahasa Indonesia: buah-buahan | collected on: (Sanana) Kampung Umaloya, Kampung Wailau, Kampung Sama | source: (targeted elicitations for tribe-based dialect variation) Fagudu, Falahu, Facei tribes | 2014.

fuaya  ‘crocodile’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2014.

fuk  ‘younger sibling’ | Bahasa Indonesia: adik perempuan | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

fuk fina  ‘younger sister’ | Bahasa Indonesia: adik perempuan | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

fuk maana  ‘younger brother’ | collected on: Sanana | source: numerous | 2010–2019.

fuki  ‘younger sibling’ | collected on: Mangon | source: numerous | 2014 | note: Holle incorrectly lists this form as ‘younger sister’.