Appendix D. Augmented Evaluative Factors of Language Vitality (expanded upon from Brenzinger et al. 2003)
1. Intergenerational Transmission (1-5)
(5) safe: The language is used by all ages, from children up.
(4) unsafe: The language is used by some children in all applicable domains; it is used by all children in limited domains.
(3) definitively endangered: The language is used mostly by the parental generation and up.
(2) severely endangered: The language is used mostly by the grandparental generation and up.
(1) critically endangered: The language is used by very few speakers, mostly of great-grandparental generation.
(0) extinct: None speak the language.
2. Absolute number of Speakers
3. Proportion of Speakers within the Total Population (1-5)
(5) safe: All speak the language (excepting extraordinary exceptions).
(4) unsafe: Nearly all speak the language.
(3) definitively endangered: A majority speak the language.
(2) severely endangered: A minority speak the language.
(1) critically endangered: Very few speak the language.
(0) extinct: None speak the language.
4. Shifts in Domains of Language Use (1-5)
(5) Universal use
(4) Multilingual parity
(3) Dwindling domains
(2) Limited or formal domains
(1) Highly limited domain
(0) extinct
5. Response to New Domains and Media (1-5)
(5) dynamic: The language is used in all new domains.
(4) robust/active: The language is used in most new domains.
(3) receptive: The language is used in many new domains.
(2) coping: The language is used in some new domains.
(1) minimal: The language is used only in a few new domains.
(0) inactive: The language is not used in any new domains.
6. Availability of Materials for Language Education and Literacy (1-5)
(5) There is an established orthography and a literacy tradition with grammars, dictionaries, texts, literature and everyday media. Writing in the language is used in administration and education.
(4) Written materials exist, and at school, children are developing literacy in the language. Writing in the language is not used in administration.
(3) Written materials exist and children may be exposed to the written form at school. Literacy is not promoted through print media.
(2) Written materials exist, but they may only be useful for some members of the community; for others, they may have a symbolic significance. Literacy education in the language is not a part of the school curriculum.
(1) A practical orthography may be known to the community inasmuch as the language is phonologically compatible with a dominant language’s orthography, yet it is rarely used, and writing is mostly limited to graffiti and homemade notices (e.g. “no trespassing” signs)
(0) No orthography is available to the community.
7. Governmental and Institutional Language Attitudes and Policies, Including Official Status and Use: (1-5)
(5) Equal support: All languages are protected.
(4) Differentiated support: Minority languages are protected primarily as the language of private domains. The use of the language is prestigious.
(3) Passive assimilation: No explicit policy exists for minority languages; the dominant language prevails in the public domain.
(2) Active assimilation: Government encourages assimilation to the dominant language. There is no protection for minority languages.
(1) Forced assimilation: The dominant language is the sole official language, while non-dominant languages are neither recognized nor protected.
(0) Prohibition: Minority languages are prohibited.
8. Community Members’ Attitudes towards Their Own Language (1-5)
(5) All members value their language and wish to see it promoted.
(4) Most members support language maintenance.
(3) Many members support language maintenance; others are indifferent or may even support language loss.
(2) Some members support language maintenance; others are indifferent or may even support language loss.
(1) Only a few members support language maintenance; others are indifferent or may even support language loss.
(0) No one cares if the language is lost; all prefer to use a dominant language.
9. Type and Quality of Documentation (1-5)
(5) superlative: There are comprehensive grammars and dictionaries, extensive texts, and a constant flow of language materials. Abundant annotated high- quality audio and video recordings exist.
(4) good: There is one good grammar and a number of adequate grammars, dictionaries, texts, literature and occasionally updated everyday media; adequate annotated high-quality audio and video recordings exist.
(3) fair: There may be an adequate grammar or sufficient numbers of grammars, dictionaries and texts but no everyday media; audio and video recordings of varying quality or degree of annotation may exist.
(2) fragmentary: There are some grammatical sketches, word-lists and texts useful for limited linguistic research but with inadequate coverage. Audio and video recordings of varying quality, with or without any annotation, may exist.
(1) inadequate: There are only a few grammatical sketches, short word-lists and fragmentary texts. Audio and video recordings do not exist, are of unusable quality or are completely un-annotated.
(0) undocumented: No material exists.
10. ELECTRIC. Public utility service area
YES
NO
11. ELECTRIC. Access to electrical power in home (% of community)
>70%
30–70%
10–29%
<10%
12. ELECTRIC. Community cooperative generators (or public utility access points) that people can use to charge or power personal electronic devices (e.g. mobile phones, reading lights)
YES
NO
13. ELECTRIC. number of hours of electrical power daily
N/A
evening only
evening–night
24 hr
14. COMMUNICATION. reach of TV broadcast signal (including satellite dish when available)
YES
NO
15. COMMUNICATION. Is there a community TV (y/n)
16. COMMUNICATION. percentage of community with access to the TV (i.e. live close enough to a community TV for it to be a practical regular activity)
>70%
30–70%
10–29%
<10%
17. COMMUNICATION. Scale for cellular voice/SMS signal
(0) no access
(1) signal is available in certain locations of the village sometimes
(2) signal is always available in certain locations of the village
(3) signal is available in most locations of the village intermittently (asynchronous comm: send now, delivered later)
(4) signal is available in most locations of the village most of the time (semi-synchronous comm)
(5) signal is available in all locations of the village nearly all of the time (synchronous comm)
18. COMMUNICATION. Scale for cellular data signal
(0) no access
(1) signal is available in certain locations of the village sometimes
(2) signal is always available in certain locations of the village
(3) signal is available in most locations of the village intermittently (asynchronous comm: send now, delivered later)
(4) signal is available in most locations of the village most of the time (semi-synchronous comm)
(5) signal is available in all locations of the village nearly all of the time (synchronous comm)
19. COMMUNICATION. percentage of adults with a smartphone
>70%
30–70%
10–29%
<10%
20. COMMUNICATION. percentage of adults with a ‘dumbphone’ (SMS)
>70%
30–70%
10–29%
<10%Appendix E. Data from Chapter Two part 1
Proto–Sula. u>o when following syllable contains a high vowel
*uCi
PMP PSM Mangon Sanana English
*bukij *fa-ʔoki faoki faʔok ‘forested mountain areas’
*buni *daʔufoŋi daufoŋi daʔufon ‘to hide’
*duRi *loi loi hoi ‘thorn’/‘bone’
*kulit *koli koli kol ‘skin’
*ma-putiq *boti boti bot ‘white’
*puki *poki poki pok ’vulva, vagina’
*qutin *oti oti ot ‘penis’
*uCu
PMP PSM Mangon Sanana English
*bubu *fofu fofu fofa ‘bamboo fish/eel trap’
*buku *foku foku foka ‘joint, finger or bamboo’
*bulu *fou foː foa ‘hair, feathers’
*kutu *kotu kotu kota ‘hair louse’
*puluq *pou poː poa ‘ten’
*pusuq *pou poː poa ‘banana inflorescence’
*susu *sosu sosu sosa ‘female breast’
*tunu *donu donu dona ‘to burn’
*tuktuk *dotu dotu dota ‘to strike’
PSM to Sanana. u>a where preceding syllable contains o
*u>a/oσ_#. Lowering of *u to a where the preceding syllable contains a mid back vowel
PSM Sanana English
*bagou bagoa ‘cold’
*bosu bosa ‘to suck’
*donu dona ‘to burn’
*dotu dota ‘to hit’
*fou foa ‘hair, feather’
*kotu kota ‘louse’
*momu moma ‘to hit’
*moru mora ‘wind’
*moyu moya ‘no, not’
*(N-)boyu boya ‘tail’
*nonu nona ‘to sleep’
*padomu paroma ’knee’
*pou poa ‘blood’
*pou poa ‘ten’
*pougahupoagahu‘twenty’
*pougalimapoagalima‘fifty’
*samohusamoha‘needle’
*saotu saota ‘to dry’
*sosu sosa ‘female breast’
*yotu yota ‘to hunt’
PSM to Sanana. Loss of final i, u
*i,u > Ø / [-glottal] _#
PSM Sanana English
*(t,d)ufi duf ‘to stab’
*aku ak ‘1SG’
*api ap ‘fire’
*asu as ‘dog’
*bafei bafei ‘green’
*bagu bag ‘thick’
*bahali bahal ‘shy’
*baifoŋi baifon ‘to hide’
*bamapu bamap ‘to cook’
*banapi banap ‘to shoot’
*baoni bayon ‘mouth’
*betu bet ‘day’
*boti bot ‘white’
*daeti daet ‘branch’
*dagati dagat ‘narrow’
*daufoŋi daʔufon ‘to hide’
*deti det ‘to cut, hack’
*dogi dog ‘to grow’
*duki duk ‘to come’
*eki ek ‘neck’
*gami am ‘to squeeze’
*gapitu gapit ‘seven’
*gasi gas ‘salt’
*gatelu gatel ‘three’
*jubi jub ‘to shoot’
*kabaresi kabares ‘bad, evil’
*kafini kafin ‘mosquito’
*kagi kag ‘to fear’
*kahiku kahik ‘grass’
*kiti kit ‘1PL.INCL’
*koli kol ‘skin’
*kuli kul ‘right’
*lani -han ‘near’
*laŋi lan ‘sky’
*lifi lif ‘to turn’
*maki mak ‘tongue’
*manipi manip ‘thin’
*miti mit ‘black’
*naŋu nan ‘to swim’
*nibu nib ‘to sit’
*nonu boli nona bol ‘to lie down’
*ŋapu nap ‘head’
*rekiŋ (L) rek ‘to count’
*saku sak ‘to pierce’
*samamu samam ‘to chew’
*saŋa-petu sanapet ‘thatch/roof’
*waki dabu wak dab ‘to think’
*winu win ‘to drink’
*yopu yop ‘to suck’Words: PSM – MANGON – SANANA
PSM Mangon Sanana English
1 *afu- afumai aftuka ‘ash’
2 *aku aku ak ‘I’
3 *api api ap ‘fire’
4 *asu asu as ‘dog’
5 *baba baba baba ‘father’
6 *badagana badagana baragana ‘to dream’
7 *bagou bago(ː) bagoa ‘cold’
8 *bagu bagu bag ‘thick’
9 *baha baː baha ‘to buy’
10 *bahali bali bahal ‘shy’
11 *bama bama bama ‘to split’
12 *bamapu bamapu bamap ‘to cook’
13 *banapi banapi banap ‘to shoot’
14 *baoni boni bayon ‘mouth’
15 *basa basa basa ‘other’
16 *baumata baumata baumata ‘to kill’
17 *behi beː behi ‘to throw’
18 *bena bena bena ‘to climb’
19 *betu pila betu pila bet pila ‘when?’
20 *betu betu bet ‘day’
21 *beu beu beu ‘to tie up’
22 *binaka binaka bilnaka ‘to steal’
23 *bisa bisa bisa ‘good’
24 *bo bo bo ‘at’
25 *bosu bosu bosa ‘to suck’
26 *boti boti bot ‘white’
27 *bua bua bua ‘to fall’
28 *ca-gia ca-gia ca-hia ‘1 thousand’
29 *daeti badaeti daet ‘branch’
30 *dagati dagati dagat ‘narrow’
31 *dalena dalena dalena ‘wide’
32 *daʔufoŋi daufoŋi daʔufon ‘to hide’
33 *deti deti det ‘to cut, hack’
34 *dogi dogi dog ‘to grow’
35 *donu donu dona ‘to burn’
36 *dotu dotu dota ‘to pound’
‘beat’
37 *duki duki duk ‘to come’
38 *eki eki ek ‘neck’
39 *(fa-N-)tui fantui fatui ‘star’
40 *fa-ŋara paŋara faŋara ‘cloud’
41 *fa-sina fasina fasina ‘moon’
42 *fa-ʔoki faoki faʔok ‘woods’,
forest’
43 *fata fata fata ‘wife’
44 *fatu fatu fat ‘stone’
45 *fatugia fatugia fathia ‘piece of~’
46 *feu feu feu ‘new’
47 *fina fina fina ‘woman’
48 *fofu fofu fofa ‘bamboo
trap for
fish and eels’
49 *foku foku foka ‘joint’, ‘node
in bamboo,
sugarcane’
50 *fou foː foa ‘hair, feather’
51 *gad(i,e)ha gadia gareha ‘four’
52 *gahu guː gahu ‘two’
53 *galima galima galima ‘five’
54 *ganei gane(ː) ganei ‘six’
55 *gapitu gapitu gapit ‘seven’
56 *gasi gasi gas ‘salt’
57 *gatahua gatua gatahua ‘eight’
58 *gatasia gatasia gatasia ‘nine’
59 *gatelu gatelu gatel ‘three’
60 *geka geka geka ‘painful, sick’
61 *geli geli gehi ‘to stand’
62 *gia gia hia ‘one’
63 *han an han ‘who?’
64 *hapa apa, hapa hapa ‘what?’
65 *ik(i,a) ika ik(i) ‘this’
66 *jubi jubi jub ‘bow’
67 *kabaresi (L?) kabaresi kabares ‘bad, evil’
68 *kafini kafini kafin ‘mosquito’
69 *kagi kagi kag ‘to fear’
70 *kalo kalo kalo ‘if’
71 *kam kam kam ‘we (excl)’
72 *kau kau kau ‘to cut, hack’
73 *kena kena kena ‘fish’
74 *kim kim kim ‘you’
75 *kiti kiti kit ‘we (incl)’
76 *kiʔi kiː kiʔi ‘he/she’
77 *koli koli kol ‘skin’
78 *kotu kotu kota ‘louse’
79 *kuli kuli kul ‘right’
80 *la laː la ‘to fly’
81 *lai lai hai ‘earth, soil’
82 *lai mai lai mai hai mai ‘dust’
83 *laka laka laka ‘to walk’
84 *lama lama hama ‘eye’
85 *lani lani han ‘near’
86 *laŋi laŋi lan ‘sky’
87 *lawa lawa lawa ‘spider’
88 *lepa lepa lepa ‘above’
89 *lifi lifi lif ‘to turn’
90 *lika lika lika ‘to choose’
91 *lima lima lima ‘hand’
92 *loi loi hoi ‘thorn, bone’
93 *mahi mai mahi ‘sea’
94 *maki maki mak ‘tongue’
95 *manipi manipi manip ‘thin’
96 *manu manu man ‘bird’
97 *manutelu manutelu mantel ‘egg’
98 *maŋa maŋa mana ‘sharp’
99 *mata mata mata ‘dead’
100 *mata-pia matapia matapia ‘human’
101 *ma-tua matua matua ‘old’
102 *maʔana mana maʔana ‘man’
103 *meŋa meŋa mena ‘to cry’
104 *meta meta meta ‘wet’
105 *meu meu meu ‘rope’
106 *mia mia mia ‘red’
107 *miti miti mit ‘black’
108 *momu momu moma ‘to pound’,
‘beat’
109 *mon mon mon ‘you’
110 *moru moru mora ‘wind’
111 *moyu moyu moya ‘no, not’
112 *muamua muamua muamua ‘all’
113 *(N-)boyu mboyu boya ‘tail’
114 *(N-)losa nlosa hosa ‘leaf’
115 *(N-)yai nyai yai ‘leg’
116 *nahu nau nahu ‘long’
117 *naŋu naŋu nan ‘to swim’
118 *nau nau nau ‘to know’
119 *nibu nibu nib ‘to sit’
120 *nonu nonu nona ‘to sleep’
121 *ŋa ŋa na ‘name’
122 *ŋapu ŋapu nap ‘head’
123 *ŋau ŋau nau ‘cat’
124 *ŋihi ŋiː nihi ‘tooth’
125 *padomu padomu paroma ‘knee’
126 *pia pia pia ‘alive’, ‘good’,
‘safe’
127 *pou poː poa ‘blood’
128 *pou poː poa ‘ten’
129 *pougahu pogu(ː) poagahu ‘twenty’
130 *rekiŋ (L) rekiŋ rek ‘to count’
131 *saku saku sak ‘to stab’
132 *samamu samamu samam ‘to chew’
133 *samohu samo samoha ‘needle’
134 *saŋapetu saŋapetu sanapet ‘thatch/roof’
135 *saotu sotu saota ‘dry’
136 *soba soba soba ‘wing’
137 *sosu sosu sosa ‘breast’
138 *tadu tadu tar ‘horn’
139 *tahaga (L) taga tahaga ‘lake’
140 *tahun taun taun, tahun (L) ‘year’
141 *tapa tapa tapa ‘left’
142 *tilu tilu til ‘ear’
143 *timu timu tim ‘cucumber’
144 *tua tua tua ‘husband’
145 *tui tui tui ‘snake’
146 *tuka tuka tuka ‘intestines’
147 *uha ua uha ‘shrimp’,
‘lobster’
148 *uma uma uma ‘house’
149 *uya uya uya ‘rain’
150 *wai wai wai ‘water’
151 *(wai) ewa (wai) ewa (wai) ewa ‘to flow’
152 *waka waka waka ‘root’
153 *waki dabu waki dabu wak dab ‘to think’
154 *wama wama wama ‘to breathe’
155 *winu winu win ‘to drink’
156 *yaŋa yaŋa yana ‘to see’
157 *yau yau yau ‘far’
158 *yotu yotu yota ‘to hunt’
Appendix F. Data from Chapter Two part 2
Table A. Words identified as containing final /i/ or /u/ target environments.
Items for which final vowels variants were produced:
CMD (V# Variant) English
1. uli ‘worm’
2. ami ‘to squeeze’
3. duki ‘to come’
4. lifi ‘to turn’
5. kagi ‘to fear’
6. eki ‘neck’
7. maki ‘tongue’
8. banapi ‘to shoot with a gun’
9. jubi ‘to shoot with a bow’
10. deti ‘to cut/hack’
11. baseli ‘to plant’
12. pani ‘wing’
13. manipi ‘thin’
14. dagati ‘narrow’
15. bali ‘shy’
16. boti ‘white’
17. miti ‘black’
18. gasi ‘salt’
19. lan ‘sky’
20. nibu ‘to sit’
21. baumapu ‘to cook’
22. fatu ‘stone’
23. bagu ‘thick’
24. tilu ‘ear’
25. nanu ‘bathe’
26. napu ‘head’
27. asu ‘dog’
28. nibu ‘sit’
29. fatu ‘stone’
30. bagu ‘thick’
31. saku ‘to pierce’
32. aku ‘1SG’
Items for which final /i/ or /u/ target environment was present, but no final vowel variant was produced:
CMD English
33. gapit ‘seven’
34. sanapet ‘roof thatch’
35. kafin ‘mosquito’
36. win ‘to drink’
37. samam ‘to chew’
38. nona bol ‘to lie down’
39. kol ‘skin’
40. mantel ‘egg’
41. gatel ‘three’
Table B. Percentages for each word of tokens showing epenthesis.
(-i#)
English -V# variant (% of tokens produced with -V#)
1. ‘black’ miti (86%)
2. ‘branch’ daeti (100%)
3. ‘day’ beti (100%)
4. ‘evil’ kabaresi (50%)
5. ‘mosquito’ kafini (0%)
6. ‘narrow’ dagati (100%)
7. ‘neck’ eki (100%)
8. ‘right’ kuli (56%)
9. ‘salt’ gasi (50%)
10. ‘shy, ashamed’ bali (100%)
11. ‘skin’ koli (0%)
12. ‘sky’ lani (50%)
13. ‘thin’ manipi (100%)
14. ‘to come’ duki (100%)
15. ‘to cut, hack’ deti (100%)
16. ‘to fear’ kagi (100%)
17. ‘to lie down’ nona boli (0%)
18. ‘to plant’ baseli (100%)
19. ‘to shoot1’ banapi (100%)
20. ‘to shoot2’ jubi (100%)
21. ‘to sniff’ manamumi (64%)
22. ‘to squeeze’ ami (100%)
23. ‘to stab, pierce’ tufi (100%)
24. ‘to turn’ lifi (100%)
25. ‘tongue’ maki (100%)
26. ‘white’ boti (50%)
27. ‘wing’ in-pani (100%)
28. ‘woods/forest’ fa’a oki (100%)
29. ‘worm’ uli (100%)
(-u#)
English -V# variant (% of tokens produced with -V#)
30. ‘dog’ asu (100%)
31. ‘drink’ winu (0%)
32. ‘ear’ tilu (100%)
33. ‘egg’ mantelu (0%)
34. ‘fire’ apu (100%)
35. ‘head’ napu (100%)
36. ‘I’ aku (83%)
37. ‘pierce ear’ sak-tilu (100%)
38. ‘seven’ gapitu (0%)
39. ‘stone’ fatu (75%)
40. ‘thatch/roof’ sanapetu (0%)
41. ‘thick’ bagu (100%)
42. ‘three’ gatelu (0%)
43. ‘to chew’ samamu (0%)
44. ‘to cook’ bamapu (100%)
45. ‘to cook rice’ haku (100%)
46. ‘to grow’ batu (100%)
47. ‘to sit’ nibu (100%)
48. ‘to stab, pierce’ saku (100%)
49. ‘to swim’ nanu (100%)